High-pressure research, an interdisciplinary field that includes physics, chemistry, and materials science as well as the geosciences, has undergone tremendous advances in the last few years and is now poised for major breakthroughs. The Center for High Pressure Research (CHiPR), playing a lead role in the development of high-pressure research, is uniquely positioned to take advantage of this burgeoning new field of physical science. The field of high pressure is extremely underdeveloped in comparison to fields dealing with temperature (cryogenic physics, high-temperature physics, high-temperature ceramics, metallurgy) and chemistry. Unlike chemistry, ceramics, and metallurgy, which are as old as civilization, syntheses at pressures of even just a few GPa (e.g. of diamond, coesite, and stishovite) were possible only after the 1950's. There have been dramatic advancements in the past decade and now major developments in high-pressure technology have firmly established experimental capabilities in the range of hundreds of GPa.

The establishment of CHiPR has brought together a group of scientists with a broad range of expertise that has allowed us to expand the technology base and focus on significant scientific issues from a number of directions. We have developed state-of-the art instrumentation for achieving high pressure, repeatedly breaking high pressure and high temperature records. We have developed measuring techniques for samples at those pressures, including ultrasonic, optical, Raman, Brillouin, infrared, Mö ssbauer spectroscopy as well as synchrotron x-ray probes of pressurized samples. We continually set new limits in characterizing thermodynamic and structural properties of tiny samples recovered from high pressure experiments. We were the first to establish a modern multi-anvil research facility in the USA (in 1985); since then over a dozen multi-anvil laboratories have been founded in North America and Europe. During the initial phase of CHiPR, we have been able to refine the chemical composition of the Earth's lower mantle and define possible storage modes for water in the Earth's interior. We have synthesized and characterized many new high-pressure materials. These and other studies have been enabled and enhanced by the Center mode of operation.

Our recent success in measuring ultrasonic acoustic velocities of mantle phases at mantle pressures and temperatures holds the promise of providing critical tests of the chemical composition of the Earth’s mantle. By making these measurements in conjunction with synchrotron x-ray diffraction, we will define not only the volume dependence on pressure and temperature along with derivatives, but also the shear modulus at these conditions. Such data will provide a direct interpretation of seismic tomography in terms of lateral temperature variations.

The development of the double hot-plate diamond anvil system enables phase equilibria studies beyond the range of the multi-anvil apparatus. While we plan to expand the comfort zone of the multi-anvil system to 25 GPa, it may still be difficult to thoroughly examine the fate of subducted basalt. With the new laser heated diamond anvil approach, these studies can be extended to the conditions of the core-mantle boundary. Using diffraction from a synchrotron source, it will be possible to detect solid-solid phase transitions as well as revisit melting phenomena.

Some of the major achievements in high-pressure research and mineral physics by CHiPR are detailed in this proposal. The advancements should be measured not only in terms of a list of our own publications, but also in the extraordinary impact that the events leading up to the formation of the Center and establishment of CHiPR itself have had on research efforts in dozens of laboratories. We have interacted with virtually every successful high-pressure and/or mineral physics effort in the world. CHiPR has been a source of samples and facilities for scientists outside of the Center. We are one of the few laboratories that routinely synthesizes large volume samples of the perovskite phase of MgSiO3, the dominant mineral in the Earth's interior. These and other high pressure samples made at CHiPR have been studied with a variety of techniques in laboratories throughout the world. Our facilities are used by many researchers from a number of disciplines to study materials of interest to their programs. The facilities that CHiPR is continuing to develop at the national synchrotrons provides access by the entire scientific community to these world-class instruments.

We are now poised to make great strides in studies of the interiors of Earth and the other planets. As a result of the recent advances in high-pressure techniques, it is possible for the first time to simulate in the laboratory the entire pressure-temperature range of the Earth's interior, from the crust to the core. The challenge before us now is the application of new analytical techniques to measure physical and chemical properties of materials under these extreme conditions. This will require continued close collaborations with scientists in allied fields. CHiPR has been active in organizing CSEDI workshops of scientists from seismology, geochemistry, mantle dynamics, and mineral physics to study the Earth's transition zone (400-700 km deep). These interactive programs help increase the impact of CHiPR research projects on fundamental Earth science issues and stimulate research in related fields.

Materials with unusual properties are of fundamental importance to national industry. Our basic research thrusts into the added dimension of high pressure provide a basis for discovering and understanding materials that can serve these needs. Our approach has been to encourage and nurture scientist to scientist interactions, providing facility support, technical and scientific expertise, and a dialogue for the exchange of ideas, capabilities, and needs. Examples includes our interaction with scientists from IBM who worked with the calorimetry program to characterize high temperature superconductors and used the high pressure facility to synthesize these materials. A second example is collaborative work with Exxon on gas clathrates. These are a nagging nuisance to oil production; their characterization using high-pressure techniques has been of mutual interest. Fruits from this type of interaction may benefit both the broad spectrum of industrial applications as well as the high pressure research community.

Cutting edge research generates a contagious excitement and enthusiasm for science. The Center approach to research provides the opportunity to share this excitement with a broader community and capture the imagination of the next generation of scientists and engineers. CHiPR has initiated a program, Journey to the Center of the Earth, which works at the K-12 level in local school systems The program includes working with teachers to develop, within the existing curriculum, teaching tools and materials that communicate this enthusiasm to students, visits of CHiPR personnel to the local schools, teacher training workshops, student visits to the laboratories, and the development of a display area in the Long Island Museum of Natural Sciences. CHiPR also runs an active summer scholars program at Stony Brook for undergraduates from around the country; each student works for ten weeks with a faculty member and presents an oral and written report on their results.

Education in the US needs to reach out to traditionally underrepresented groups of people. CHiPR has an active program to reach this community. The most successful efforts have come from our direct ties with Delaware State University, an historically black institution. A recent alumnus of CHiPR is now an Associate Professor of Physics at this university. He has worked with us to recruit underrepresented minorities and women into our summer scholars program and, as an adjunct faculty in CHiPR, he joins us in the summer to help advise these students. One third of our summer scholars program have been from underrepresented groups. We have also been quite successful in the participation of women at all levels in CHiPR.

We look forward to the challenge of the next five years with the anticipation that the research will be even more exciting and rewarding than the past five years.

The Center for High Pressure Research (CHiPR), received funding in February 1991 as one of the second set of NSF Science and Technology Centers. CHiPR's goals are scientific, technological, and educational. We are guided by two central scientific objectives: (1) to understand the deep interiors of planets, especially the Earth's mantle and core, through quantitative study of the materials likely to be present in such environments, and (2) to use pressure as a probe of the structure, bonding, energetics, and physical properties of solids to improve fundamental understanding of high-pressure chemical and physical phenomena.

We seek to advance high-pressure technology in both diamond-anvil cell and multi-anvil high-pressure, high-temperature environments, to use and improve the application of synchrotron radiation to high-pressure studies, and to develop in situ and ex situ characterization methods compatible with microscopic high-pressure samples.

We are committed to a strong educational component for a community diverse in its needs and demographics. We provide continuity and flexibility for external and internal collaborations in our unique laboratories, and we engage in outreach programs to a varied community in academia, federal laboratories, industry, and the general public.

All of the physical and chemical processes in the Earth's dynamic interior take place under high pressure. Subduction, convection, differentiation, melting, and the transport of mass and energy occur in an environment subjected to pressures ranging from thousands to millions of atmospheres. At such extreme conditions the stable phases and their physical and chemical properties differ -- sometimes radically so -- from their more familiar room-pressure counterparts. We cannot understand the Earth without first understanding the behavior of materials at high pressure.

Our knowledge of the Earth's interior structure and dynamics has come primarily from global-scale seismological and other geophysical observations. Major recent advances in high-resolution seismic profiling (; van der Hilst et al., 1991; ; ; ) and seismic tomography (; ; ; ; ) reveal details of layering and lateral inhomogeneities within the Earth. Recent geodynamic modeling complements these observations and provides important insights to the processes of subduction, convection, and mantle evolution (; ; ; ; ). These global-scale efforts guide and inform the mineral physics community, who determine the structures, properties, and phase relations of the mineral phases that occur deep within the Earth (; ; *; ; ; ; *; asterisked references are CHiPR publications). These experimental data, in turn, guide and constrain the models of earth behavior. All earth scientists, therefore, have begun to recognize that a full understanding of earth processes must integrate global-scale observations and modeling with laboratory simulations of high-pressure, high-temperature environments.

We have entered a watershed era in studies of Earth and planetary interiors, thanks in particular to recent advances in high-pressure techniques. For the first time we can simulate in the laboratory the entire pressure-temperature range of the Earth's interior, from crust to core. Pressure, temperature, and composition are the three dominant parameters that control the properties of all materials. Effects of pressure, however, are far less well studied than those of temperature or composition, which provide the basis of chemistry, ceramics, and metallurgy and are thus as old as civilization itself. Research at even modest pressures of less than 100,000 atmospheres (10 GPa) has been possible only since the 1950s, while it was not until the past decade that dramatic advances firmly established experimental capabilities in the range of millions of atmospheres -- an environment that can induce physical changes in matter comparable to and often more extreme than those possible by the full range of available temperatures and compositions.

The challenge now before us is the application of new analytical techniques to measure physical and chemical properties of materials under these extreme conditions, and the use of these measurements to model Earth and planetary interiors.

The NSF Science and Technology Center for High Pressure Research (CHiPR), with its extensive staff and facilities, is uniquely positioned to support and advance this burgeoning new field of high pressure science. CHiPR, a collaboration among the Mineral Physics Institute of the State University of New York at Stony Brook, the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and Princeton University, received funding in February 1991 as one of the second set of NSF Science and Technology Centers. We are now in our sixth year, the half-way point in the eleven-year lifetime of a Science and Technology Center.

CHiPR's scientific, technological, and educational goals are guided by two central scientific themes: (1) to understand the deep interiors of planets, especially the Earth's mantle and core, through quantitative study of the materials likely to be present in such environments, and (2) to use pressure as a probe of the structure, bonding, energetics, and physical properties of solids to improve fundamental understanding of high-pressure chemical and physical phenomena.

We seek to advance high-pressure technology in both diamond-anvil cell and multi-anvil high-pressure, high-temperature environments, to use and improve the application of synchrotron radiation to high-pressure studies, and to develop in situ and ex situ characterization methods compatible with microscopic high-pressure samples.

Perhaps the most important products of CHiPR are the people who come to the Center as students or post docs, become captured by the excitement of frontier research, contribute to the atmosphere within the Center, and then move on to positions in academia, industry or government labs. We already see the impact of CHiPR alumni at high pressure institutions around the world. Kurt Leinenweber is director of labs at the Arizona State high pressure facility, Yusheng Zhao recently joined the high pressure program at LANSCE in Los Alamos, Martin Kunz and Michael Hanfland are on the high pressure beam line staff at ESRF, Tom Duffy has begun as beamline designer and scientist for diamond anvil studies at APS and Yanbin Wang has taken a similar position for multi-anvil high pressure studies. Sho Utsumi is in charge of the installation of the large volume high pressure system at SPRING-8 in Japan. Our annual CHiPR meeting in June, 1995 brought together 65 high pressure scientists that are currently affiliated with CHiPR. Many of these scientists will soon move on to other institutions, bringing with them the tools honed at CHiPR.

We are committed to a strong educational component for a community diverse in its needs and demographics. We train students and visitors in state-of-the-art high-pressure concepts and techniques, we provide continuity and flexibility for external and internal collaborations in our unique laboratories, and we engage in outreach programs to a varied community in academia, federal laboratories, industry, and the general public.

In the recent post-cold-war era, the scientific community is grappling with the need for relevancy. Scientists must share their products with new communities, and Centers have a responsibility to explore non-traditional methods and reach out to these communities. Technology transfer with industry is a critical area that CHiPR continues to cultivate. We find that the scientist to scientist interaction continues to be the most successful mode of interaction.

K-12 education is a national priority. Basic research scientists have not traditionally entered into this area of education, in part, because we did not recognize that we had much to offer. However, we can provide new knowledge and technology, the excitement of discovery, the ability to both formulate and answer critical questions. CHiPR is committed to pursue interaction with the educational process. We have the opportunity to help redefine the style of interaction. We must continue to try new ideas and approaches, and critically assess the outcome. We must define the unique characteristics that we, as research scientists, can bring to the educational process.

Some of the major recent achievements in high-pressure research and mineral physics by the institutions involved in the Center are summarized below. These advancements should be measured not only in terms of a list of our own publications, but also in the extraordinary impact that the events leading up to the establishment of the Center itself have had on research efforts in dozens of laboratories around the world.

Prior to the establishment of CHiPR, several major technical breakthroughs occurred that set the stage for the Center. Multi-anvil high pressure systems were developed that increased the working pressure range for large volume samples by a factor of five over the piston-cylinder system, moving the maximum pressure into the range of the lower mantle. Using the superconducting wiggler port at NSLS, we can now perform an experiment in 100 seconds that would have required 100 years to obtain the same number of photons with laboratory sources. Diamond anvil technology continued to push to new highs in pressure with increasingly better temperature controls. The potential scientific benefit to the earth science community of such advances demand that these new tools be developed and exploited. Indeed this is the principal research mission of CHiPR. The effort requires scientific, technical, and administrative input that can create an infrastructure that enables technical advances as guided by scientific goals.

Figure 1 illustrates the CHiPR research program. At the top is technical development. Here, the goal is to push the envelope of capabilities; included is extending the pressure-temperature range of the equipment, developing tools for studying both recovered samples and specimens at pressure and temperature. The availability of small precious samples motivates development of micro-analytical methods such as calorimetry to study properties of these materials. Thus, technological development drives experiments.

Advances in technology then enable studies of material properties of relevant systems. These are outlined in the Studies box. Developments in methodology are necessary here in order to maximize the accuracy of the data. In some instances, insights gained in improving one type of study open a whole new area for additional investigations. For example, the equation of state studies require definition of the state of deviatoric stress in the sample. The tools developed for answering these problems lead to a methodology for investigating rheological properties.

The collection of properties gained from the variety of studies can then be applied to understanding the interiors of the Earth and planets as well as to materials sciences. Such studies are indicated in the next set of boxes. Here it is important to interface with the broader scientific community, making the greatest use of global earth data or ongoing work in materials science. The entire system is not complete without feedback that motivates further technology development. The questions we wish to answer about the Earth, in turn, drive technological development.

In its first six years of existence, CHiPR has made major contributions to each of these areas. The synergy among the scientists and technical support staff has resulted in a comprehensive program that has provided many technical advances as well as new insights into the state of the Earth’s interior. Because of space limitations, we will highlight only a few of the CHiPR contributions in the following section.. With these examples, we hope to illustrate the nature of the process of discovery within a STC environment as well as some of the exciting results. A comprehensive picture of work accomplished is expressed through the publications that have come from CHiPR that are listed later in the report.

It is obvious that forefront research and the technological capability to do new and better experiments are intimately linked. For high pressure research, this synergy is especially evident in the development of new diamond cell and multi-anvil apparatus (with both higher P, T capability and far better control of sample environment over longer experiments), the rapid evolution of synchrotron-based diffraction and spectroscopic in situ experiments, and the improvement of characterization techniques, both structural and thermodynamic, applied to small samples. The computer revolution is having a major impact, both in terms of data acquisition and processing, and in its influence on computation and modeling. Technical advances come in a variety of forms. Some are opportunistic, taking advantage of developments by other groups or other disciplines such as the use of synchrotron radiation. Others are by invention. The ultrasensitive calorimeter and the T-Cup high pressure cell demonstrate new CHiPR tools that have built on past experience with multi-anvil apparatus to create a new capability. In this section, we detail some of the CHiPR technical advances of the past six years.

Ten years ago, all of the large-volume, high-pressure research relevant to the deep Earth was being done in Japan. At that time, several laboratories were operating multi-anvil high pressure systems at pressures in excess of 20 GPa. MAX80, a cubic anvil system had already been operating for 5 years at the Photon Factory synchrotron with many user groups. In 1985 a few Stony Brook scientists (now all members of the CHiPR team), with NSF and University support, purchased a split-sphere system, the USSA-2000, and a DIA apparatus, SAM85, from Japanese companies. Indeed the generosity of our Japanese colleagues in sharing their experience was the most important ingredient in the Stony Brook success. At the most recent US-Japan High Pressure Seminar in January, 1996, it was gratifying to see that we are equal partners, teaching as much as we were learning.

CHiPR now operates three 6-8 multi-anvil systems; the USSA-2000 and a Walker style split cylinder apparatus at Stony Brook, and a Boyd split cylinder system at the Geophysical Lab. All three systems operate virtually 24 hours a day.

Many of the CHiPR technical advances in these systems have come in the design of the sample cell. The axial thermocouple design has improved the accuracy of temperature measurement. The use of rhenium sample containers enabled new high temperature records of 3000K at elevated pressure while investigating the melting curve of stishovite (*). Gasket design, coupled with appropriate tungsten carbide anvils enabled Yanbin Wang to synthesize pure perovskite samples. These samples, in turn, were studied with several different analytical methods after recovery. Accurate preparation of cell materials have ensured high reproducibility of phase equilibria results with a minimum of run failures.

Characterization and control of the stress and temperature environment of the sample expands the range of experiments that can be performed. TEM observations of the dislocation densities in olivine have formed the basis of qualitative rheological studies in multi-anvil systems (*; see also *Liebermann and Wang, 1992). With these techniques, cells have been developed with minimal deviatoric stresses allowing studies of properties such as diffusion using single crystal samples while minimizing the role of dislocations and preserving an intact sample (*Bertran-Alvarez et al., 1992; ). Phase equilibria experiments have been made more efficient by measuring and using temperature gradients in the sample chamber. With this ability, phase relations are revealed at one pressure and a range of temperatures in a single experiment. Other experiments are better served with very low temperature gradients and cells have been designed by Bertka with temperature gradients less than 30° C/mm .

We have made tremendous progress towards the goal of measuring acoustic velocities of mantle phases at mantle conditions. Development of automated pressure-temperature-time cycles have enabled the synthesis of high density polycrystals that are usable for acoustic experiments of high pressure phases (*Gwanmesia and Liebermann, 1992; ). The bench top acoustic velocities of these recovered samples are indistinguishable from the single crystal properties, underscoring the crack free condition of the sample and assuring that the pressure dependence of the acoustic velocities reflect the inherent properties of the minerals, not the effects of crack closure. The multi-anvil system has been used to generate the pressure for in situ acoustic experiments, yielding polycrystalline acoustic velocities to record high pressures (*Li et al, 1996b). The most recent studies have successfully defined acoustic velocities in the multi-anvil system at high pressure and high temperature (*Liebermann et al, 1996). The potential for coupling these advances with in situ x-ray diffraction is discussed in more detail later.

Differential scanning calorimetry in the piston cylinder has been developed by Robert Rapp (*). Debra Dooley, a postdoc with piston-cylinder experience, is presently improving the stability and sensitivity of our detectors by design modifications and standardization of construction. We have improved the temperature control system for the press. We are starting a project on carbonate reactions, disordering, and melting. DSC with eventual application to the multi-anvil, is expected to continue through the next grant period.

The DIA apparatus, SAM85, is a cubic anvil high-pressure device. This system provides an x-ray path through the gasketing material. Absorption of low energy x-rays severely restrict the quality of the diffraction signal. The development of the superconducting x-ray port at NSLS overcomes this obstacle by providing a sufficient x-ray flux at energies above 20 kev to allow robust energy dispersive spectra in 100 sec. With the goal of large volume x-ray studies, Charles Prewitt participated in the design of the X-17 beam line, assuring that the size of the hutch and x-ray optics could accommodate SAM85. With the funding of the CHiPR program, we were able to develop the scientific and technical base to install and commission SAM85 at Brookhaven. We were initially allocated 15% of the available beam time and now utilize 25% for the SAM85 program. The experiment is complicated by the fact that the press, not the x-ray source, must be moved in order to bring the sample into diffracting condition. Again, our Japanese colleagues shared unselfishly of all of the important design considerations that were necessary to have an operating system immediately on installation. Remote control via software and motor interfaces were designed and built by CHiPR technical support staff. Within days of the initial installation of the press at Brookhaven, we were collecting diffraction data at high pressure and temperature.

With x-rays as a probe, one can directly determine pressure, using a pressure standard such as NaCl. Temperature gradients can be directly measured. We developed a cell with the total temperature variations less that 20-30 degrees at 1200° C. Criteria were developed to measure the magnitude of deviatoric stress from the diffraction pattern. Microscopic stresses broaden the peaks, while uniform stresses induce peak dependent shifts (*). These tools were used to assure hydrostatic stress in equation of state measurements, and have formed the basis of rheological investigations of materials at high pressure and temperature (*). These same tools have been used in our diamond anvil studies (*).

In an effort to push the pressure limitations without sacrificing sample volume, we initially followed the Japanese lead in using sintered diamond anvils in SAM85. Owing to the expense of failed anvils, we subsequently focused our technical efforts on improving the performance of the tungsten carbide anvils. We found that a slight taper on the anvil tip allowed the tungsten carbide anvil to perform at nearly the same pressure as the sintered diamond anvil with the same sized sample chamber. In fact, this modification greatly extended the life of thermocouples, allowing a single experiment to cycle many pressure-temperature paths, thus greatly improving the efficiency of a single run.

Driven by the goal to achieve even high pressures, we have developed the T-Cup cell (*), which is based on the same anvil geometry of the USSA-2000 but much smaller. The 8 inner cubic anvils are 1 cm on an edge, thus allowing future use of sintered diamonds. The entire cell is about 6 inches across and is designed to work to loads of 200 tons. X-ray access is provided with strategically placed cuts in the first stage. In the preliminary experiments, we have achieved 18 GPa based on NaCl diffraction. This is 3/4 of the maximum pressure of the USSA-2000, but with a ram load of about 1/5 of that needed for the USSA-2000. With sintered diamonds, we hope to double the maximum pressure. The sintered diamonds will be expensive, a few thousand dollars each. Thus, we will continue to develop the tungsten carbide system (a few dollars per anvil) before we try to exploit the sintered diamond system.

Data analysis has been developed by employing the Rietveld method of full pattern analysis. This enables better determination of the cell dimensions for samples with overlapping peaks and utilizes all structure information to achieve the best cell refinement. With this system, we have been able to measure the time evolution of iron content of olivine coexisting with wadsleyite (*Chen et al., 1996).

SAM85 now provides diffraction data at high pressure and high temperature of quality comparable to that at room pressure and temperature, yet with a short data gathering time as to allow time resolved studies. This requires monochromatic radiation with angle dispersive analysis. The NSLS has installed a Laue-Bragg monochromator on the X-17 beamline. In conjunction with an imaging plate recording system, we collect a robust angle dispersive signal in less than 5 minutes. For obtaining high quality data, we again redesigned the cell assembly so as to eliminate contributions of furnace material to the diffraction pattern. Jiuhua Chen further developed a double imaging plate technique to eliminate uncertainties in sample position and hence error in two theta. We have succeeded in obtaining sufficient quality data to determine site occupancy of Ni and Mg in an olivine sample at pressure and temperature. We can discern the kinetics of ordering at different temperatures and pressures. Our next goal is to utilize newly developed CCD detectors. These should provide an equivalent signal as the imaging plate, but with less time downloading the data. Now the imaging plate takes about 20 minutes to read while the CCD detector downloads in about a second, thus enabling near real time data acquisition.

Diamond-anvil cells (DAC) can achieve much higher pressures and temperatures than can multi-anvil apparatus, but on much smaller samples. A major CHiPR effort over the past three years and one that will continue in the future is to improve the quality of DAC results through new ways of heating samples, improved calibration techniques, new cell designs, and improved techniques for making various kinds of measurements at high pressure. The P-T conditions of the entire Earth and a major portion of Jovian planets can be simulated with diamond-anvil cells (see Figure 2). Physical and chemical properties of materials can be determined in DAC through the diamond windows. However, a severe tradeoff exists in that the DACs optimized for accurate measurements are usually limited to low P and T. We are carrying out new design efforts to extend the high-accuracy measurements to the P-T range of key geophysical significance. Central considerations are the accessibility, accuracy, and sensitivity of in-situ measurements and the range, accuracy, and uniformity of P and T.

A key to successful ultrahigh-pressure experiments is to use diamonds with a minimum of imperfections, a problem because most natural stones contain flaws and impurities that weaken their structural properties and interact negatively with certain experimental measurements. As an alternative, we initiated a program of testing synthetic single-crystal diamonds for anvil use at ultrahigh pressures. Two of the major producers of industrial diamonds, General Electric and Sumitomo, succeeded in synthesizing large single crystals of diamond with high purity unmatched by any natural diamonds. Free of impurities, these strain-free, high-strength diamonds are also transparent over a wide spectral range, and they have low fluorescence at high pressure (). We have formed a collaboration with G.E. to extensively test the utility of such diamonds as high-pressure anvils, and have initiated a pilot project to explore the feasibility of synthesizing using CHiPR facilities (see the section on diamond synthesis below).

Once high-quality diamonds are available, the next most important step is to cut the diamonds properly to maximize their utility in the DAC. Higher pressures are reached with smaller diamond culets. Previously the smallest culet was 15 mm. Working with Drukker International, we have advanced the diamond polishing technique to produce perfect culets of 5 mm, and have made extensive tests of culet size, bevel size, and bevel angle above 100 GPa to correlate the optimal diamond anvil shape with maximum pressure and sample volume. We collaborated recently with M. Hanfland and D. Hausermann of ESRF and J. Badro and P. Gillet of the University of Lyon to examine the elastic deformation of anvils, the plastic flow of the sample gasket, and the pressure gradient. In one experiment, a 5 µm x-ray beam was scanned across the anvil in two dimensions in situ at high pressures. The transmitted beam provided a radiograph showing the thickness of the gasket and the shape of the anvil (Figure 3). The lattice compression of the gasket measured by EDXD at each point provided a mapping of pressure distribution.

In single-crystal x-ray diffraction studies, seats for diamond anvils are made of beryllium because of its x-ray transparency. However, the maximum pressures of such experiments are limited to 30 GPa due to the low mechanical strength of the beryllium seats used previously. We have experimented with special grade beryllium to reach 65 GPa (*), and with boron seats to 120 GPa (*). In other types of studies, opaque tungsten carbide is used for seats because of its great strength; typically a 20° conical hole on one seat and a 10° x 90° slot opening on the opposite seat are used to provide access for polycrystalline x-ray diffraction and optical measurements. Above 100 GPa, we observed that 80% of diamond failures occurred on the slotted side, indicating a weak point. We strengthened the slotted seat by replacing it with a 34° conical hole, which extends the maximum pressure while still providing access for energy dispersive x-ray diffraction (EDXD), Raman and infrared spectroscopy.

We have developed a high strength non-magnetic gasket for magnetic susceptibility studies at high pressures (*), and a stainless steel gasket with a rhenium insert for ultrahigh pressure experiments above 150 GPa or with a beryllium copper insert for containing hydrogen at high temperatures. Polycrystalline x-ray diffraction is normally collected near the DAC axis leaving the anisotropic strain largely unconstrained. We developed a beryllium gasket with which the complete deviatoric strain can be determined (Figure 4). We have used this design to study the effect of deviatoric stress on crystal deformation and phase transitions of FeO ()and graphite to 50 GPa.

The Merrill-Bassett cell () and its modifications () have been used successfully for single-crystal x-ray diffraction and Brillouin scattering to 25 GPa (*) above which the alignment cannot be sustained by the sliding-pin design normally used with these cells. A new piston-cylinder design (Figure 4(a),(b)) has been used for single-crystal diffraction to 65 GPa. We further modified the piston-cylinder length/diameter ratio from 0.5 to 1 (Figure 4(c)). The longer piston limits the accessible axial cone from 90° to 60°, but provides high alignment stability for pressures above 100 GPa. The symmetrical DAC shown in Figure 4a, b, and c is also a crucial component of the newly developed "double hot-plate" laser-heating system (*). By heating two hot plates (the interfaces between the opaque sample and transparent media) symmetrically from both sides of the DAC to the same temperature, uniform and well-defined high P-T conditions can be generated in the laser-heated sample. Phase diagrams and P-V-T equations of state of Earth materials along the entire geotherm conditions can be accurately determined by x-ray diffraction.

The broad spectral distribution of synchrotron radiation provides tremendous photon flux at lower energies, including UV, visible, and infrared wavelengths. While advantages in the UV and visible are minimal because of efficient laser techniques, the advantages in the infrared are quite significant. The high brilliance, continuous intensity distribution over the entire infrared spectrum, and time structure provide a unique radiation source. The premier facility in the world for synchrotron infrared spectroscopy is the U4-IR beam line on the Vacuum Ultraviolet (VUV) ring of the NSLS. Five years ago, we initiated a program to test the feasibility of using this resource for high-pressure applications. We used a Fourier transform spectrometer and simple optical system for transmission measurements. Three sets of preliminary experiments surpassed our highest expectations (*), and we were given the opportunity to equip an unused port at the VUV ring.

We have continued to make improvements in the synchrotron infrared technique. In particular, we have designed, built, and installed a new micro-optical system based on reflecting optics which are more properly matched to the synchrotron source. The new system allows both absorption and reflectivity measurements of diamond-cell samples down to the diffraction limit (d <10 m m for samples above 250 GPa). In addition, we collaborated to explore the use of the synchrotron beam line in other micro-spectroscopy applications.

Theoretical methods are also a strong component of the CHiPR program. Ron Cohen has developed first-principles methods to the point that quantitative predictions of mineral properties can now be made without reference or fitting to any experimental data. Since they do not depend on data, these methods help verify or lead credence to experiments, as well as helping in planning experiments or in interpreting experimental results. In the high pressure regime theory plays an additional crucial role, that of making predictions, usually reliable, of properties when no data are yet available or obtainable. Theory and experiment are most powerful when done together on a single problem, though not necessarily contemporaneously.

Technological developments, once attained, become property of the entire scientific community. Success of the USSA-2000 program helped to motivate Dave Walker’s development of a smaller less expensive multi-anvil system. Now, many laboratories in the US have access to these conditions. After a short visit to Stony Brook, Jie Li, a student of Carl Agee, was able to return to Harvard and synthesize perovskite in a Walker apparatus, using the Stony Brook cell design and anvils. All developments that we have made at synchrotron facilities are now available to the entire scientific community and our considerable involvement in the GSECARS design teams help assure the development of a world class synchrotron facility accessible by the entire earth science community at APS.

Considering the above diversity of advances, what are our primary technological goals for the next five years? The following will be areas of major effort.

1. We wish to "tame" the multianvil technology in the 20-25 GPa range, making the stability field of MgSiO₃ perovskite part of the ‘comfort zone’ of operation accessible to general users as well as specialists. Zhang is working on the design of an 8/3 cell that will provide a more stable pressure-temperature environment than the current 7/2 cell with increased sample volume. Gwanmesia and others are adapting their hot-pressing techniques to the 10/4 cell assembly to fabricate polycrystalline perovskite specimens of millimeter dimensions.

2. We wish to push the pressure limit of the synchrotron multianvil pressure system to the perovskite stability region. The development of the T-cup cell enables x-ray studies in a system with the same 6-8 pressurizing geometry as the larger multianvil systems now in use. With an upgrade of the press to 500 tons, we should be able to reach comparable pressures, particularly with the use of sintered diamond anvils. This added dimension will allow more accurate pressure calibrations of all systems using invariant phase reactions at the extremes of the pressure-temperature regions along with in situ pressure and temperature markers. J. Chen is pursuing this effort. We also plan to import the ultrasonic measurements to the x-ray system as discussed in detail later.

3. We plan to develop sample encapsulation and oxygen and volatile fugacity control methodology applicable in the multi-anvil apparatus. This is crucial to the study of iron-bearing and hydrous phases. Much of the methodology can be adapted from that developed in the piston-cylinder (of which Lindsley is an expert and in-house resource). This will be worked on by Bose, Liu and others.

4. We plan to continue development of accurate measurement techniques using the ultrasensitive calorimeter and the DSC at high pressure. Though the instrumentation has been built and tested, success in calorimetry demands constant improvements in sample handling and related methodology. We plan to extend atmospheric pressure DSC measurements of heat capacity to low T (using a commercial addition to our Netzsch apparatus) to better constrain C_p and S₂₉₈^o of high P phases.

5. With the new group of DACs, we are in the position of pursuing the following studies.

i. X-ray diffraction at ultrahigh pressures above 500 GPa at 300 K and infrared spectroscopy above 300 GPa at 4K.

ii. Polycrystalline x-ray diffraction, Brillouin scattering, and Raman spectroscopy with resistively-heated DAC to 200 GPa at 1000 K. The results will also be used for establishing primary pressure calibration at high T by integrating dP/dV (from Brillouin) and V (from x-ray).

iii. High-accuracy phase diagrams and equations of state by x-ray diffraction of laser-heated sample to 200GPa at 6000K.

iv. Uniaxial deviatoric stress-strain studies to 500 GPa at 300 K or 200 GPa at 6000 K

v. Single-crystal x-ray diffraction to 200GPa.

6. We plan to participate in the design and building of the high pressure facility at the Advanced Photon Source (APS) which is nearing completion. We are intimately involved in the design teams of the GSECARS sector for diamond cell high pressure, multianvil high pressure, and x-ray diffraction. This new generation synchrotron will provide a new class of x-rays, several orders of magnitude brighter than currently available in the US. This will allow better monochromatic studies, shorter data gathering times, smaller samples, and first class equipment for furthering the CHiPR agenda. All of the advances in high pressure technology will be transferable to this facility, making it available to the entire earth science community as well as to our own projects.

Phase transformations among quartz, coesite, and stishovite have long been of interest to petrology, geophysics, and mineral physics. Stishovite, the octahedrally-coordinated rutile form of silica, stable above about 9 GPa, may be widespread in the mantle in equilibrium with a magnesium-enriched (Mg,Fe)SiO₃-perovskite and iron-enriched (Mg,Fe)O magnesiowustite phase (*). Stishovite also appears to transform to a slightly distorted structure, the CaCl₂ polymorph, near 14 GPa (; *; *). The coesite-stishovite transition is also a useful pressure calibrant in high-pressure, high-temperature experiments.

The phase boundary of the coesite-stishovite transition was determined by using quench experiments by ) and later using in situ X-ray diffraction experiments by ). Those data appeared to be supported by early solution calorimetric data (). However, high pressure technology, calorimetric methods, and sample characterization have all improved markedly since the early 1980’s, and CHiPR decided to have another look at this important problem [especially in view of the contrasting data for the coesite-stishovite boundary obtained by Zhang et al. (1993) in their quench melting study of silica to 14 GPa].

*) conducted a reversed phase equilibrium study of the coesite-stishovite transition by in situ X-ray studies using synchrotron radiation over a higher P-T range than the studies of ). This study utilized the superconducting wiggler port at NSLS; such a high-energy source allowed the phase transformation to be detected at a significantly earlier stage because of the much higher X-ray intensities obtained with the synchrotron beam and thus made it possible to obtain tighter reversal brackets. In addition, the use of NaCl as an internal standard provided precise determination of pressure at high temperature. The results, see Figure 8, gave a slope dP/dT = 0.0026(2) GPa/K, twice as large as that of the earlier studies. The Stony Brook group concluded that, for kinetic reasons, the phase boundary is very hard to reverse at low temperature, and that the high temperature data (which connect to the melting regime, see Figure 8), are much more reliable. But now the phase equilibrium and calorimetry appeared in conflict, and a redetermination of the enthalpy of transition seemed necessary. The ) enthalpy data used samples made in graphite capsules, and a somewhat uncertain correction had to be made for the graphite present in stishovite. An even earlier calorimetric study () used natural samples (from Meteor Crater, AZ) of ill-defined purity. We therefore concentrated on very meticulous sample synthesis, characterization, and calorimetry, with the realization that even small amounts of oxidizable impurities (C,W,R,Fe) from capsules and thermocouples can adversely affect calorimetry. Our revised enthalpy of the coesite-stishovite transition, 29.85 ± 0.18 kJ/mol (*) corresponds to a dP/dT of 0.0031(2) GPa/K, in good agreement with the value of *). The calorimetry was done by Jun Liu, a graduate student at Stony Brook and Letitia Topor, a senior research scientist at Princeton. Liu is now preparing to continue his doctoral study by applying various techniques (elasticity, phase equilibria, calorimetry) to iron-bearing high pressure phases in the MgO-FeO-SiO₂ system.

At the same time as this study was being done, ) also redetermined the enthalpy of the coesite-stishovite transition. He used independently but equally carefully prepared material, a different calorimeter, and slightly different methodology. The two sets of data are essentially in agreement.

The new calorimetric data and both the observed and calculated phase boundaries for the coesite-stishovite transition have important implications for thermodynamic data bases and calculations of other phase diagrams in the MgO-FeO-SiO₂ (*; ) as well as for the question of the stability of MgSiO₃-perovskite with respect to oxide mixtures at the lower mantle pressures. Clearly the phase relations in this system represent very closely balanced energetics. Accurate determination of phase equilibria, equation of state, elasticity, and thermochemistry using carefully prepared and characterized samples continues to be a major emphasis of CHiPR.

A variety of theoretical techniques are being used, based on the Density Functional Theory (DFT) of Hohenburg, Kohn, and Sham (; ). This theory states that the ground state properties, such as the energy, can be obtained in principle from the electronic charge density, i.e., where the electrons are located. Therefore in principle, all thermodynamic properties, elastic properties, vibrational spectroscopy, equations of state, and phase transitions can be obtained from first-principles. In reality the exact kernel for the theory is not known, but improved approximations are being developed, and even the "standard approximation," the Local Density Approximation (or LDA) is often, but not always, very accurate. In any case, testable predictions can now be made routinely with theory. Heretofore, the main limitations have been computational resources, but the Geophysical Laboratory has just acquired a 1.6 GFLOP Cray J916/8-1024 through the NSF ARI program, and now has the resources to address significant problems in high pressure geophysics and physics. Here is a brief summary of some of the recent advances and future plans.

The Earth’s core has a great influence on the rest of the Earth and understanding the core is an important boundary condition for understand Earth dynamics and evolution. Seismology gives us important constraints on core properties, but the extremely high pressures and temperatures make it very hard to directly compare with experimental data since such experiments are so difficult. We have been studying a variety of problems with Fe ranging from phase stability (*; *) and equations of state (*) to elasticity (*). The most important result to date has been the prediction of elastic anisotropy of fcc and hcp Fe and comparison with seismology, showing good agreement if the innermost inner core is a single, oriented crystal of hcp Fe (*). We also showed that bcc Fe is elastically unstable, although it had previously been a candidate inner core phase. Current and future work on Fe and the core is to simulate liquid Fe at outer core conditions to estimate viscosity and other transport properties, to study the effects of temperature on elasticity and dispersion in the inner core, and to study properties of Fe compounds and alloys at core conditions.

Many experiments have identified a series of dense hydrous magnesium silicates (DHMS, see Figure 13) that could transport water to at least the 660 km discontinuity via mature, relatively cold, subducting slabs (see for example, : ; *). The extent to which such transport does occur depends on three factors: the temperature profiles in the slabs (which may be quite variable); the thermodynamic properties of the DHMS, and the thermodynamic properties of the hydrous phases which occur at lower P,T conditions (e.g. talc and antigorite) and which, if they dehydrate before the DHMS become stable, could represent a "choke point" below which water can not readily penetrate (). Because the latter phases are usually thought of in the context of near-surface processes, their high P-T equations of state have not been studied in detail. Their compressibility and thermal expansion, which reflect their highly anisotropic layered structures, prove crucial to the reconciliation of high P-T dehydration equilibria and ambient condition thermodynamic properties (; ). At the same time, the thermodynamic properties and equation of state parameters for the DHMS need to be determined. Collaborative studies between Stony Brook and Princeton, spearheaded first by Pamela Burnley and now by Kunal Bose, are vigorously attacking this problem. A series of DHMS has been synthesized and approximate phase boundaries determined (*). These materials were used for preliminary calorimetric studies (*), but it was realized that better control over phase purity was needed for definitive calorimetric measurements. However these samples were suitable for studies by infrared and Raman spectroscopy, leading to the estimation of vibrational entropies (*) and by NMR (*)

A renewed effort was made in the last year to perform synthesis, characterization, and calorimetry of talc, antigorite, and phase A. This is now complete as are carefully reversed phase equilibria involving these phases. Bose and Schields are also involved in the measurement of P-V-T relations in situ for talc and antigorite at NSLS. This work represents the first careful in situ high P-T compression studies of layer silicates and is especially interesting because the proper form, as well as numerical values, of the equation of state for such an anisotropic material needs to be determined, and because this information is essential to delineating the thermodynamic stability fields of DHMS. In addition, the work has discovered some unexpected problems perhaps related to stacking disorder at high pressure which need further investigation.

At this time the calorimetry (see Table 1) and phase equilibria appear consistent and point to the ability of these phases to carry water to the transition zone, via the set of reactions: talc® antigorite® phase A® other DHMS in a variety of relatively cold subduction zone settings (see Figure 14). We are drawn to the conclusion that in the interiors of cold slabs there is no "choke point" and that subduction can probably bring large amounts of water into the transition zone and even the lower mantle. A major goal of future CHiPR research is to determine the thermodynamic properties of other DHMS, especially phases E and shy-B.

Antigorite breakdown is characterized by a negative dP/dT; this volume decrease could serve as a crack-healing or "anticrack" mechanism. In contrast, phase A dehydration at similar conditions has a positive volume change and dP/dT, and could serve as a possible deep focus earthquake trigger. The closely balanced energetics of these two equilibria illustrate how small changes in P-T conditions can generate drastically different mineralogical and geophysical scenarios.

To better constrain the fate of water in the Earth, more realistic multicomponent systems must be studied to identify appropriate stable (rather than metastable) equilibria involving DHMS and other phases. Several approaches will be taken. (1) Kunal Bose will extend the careful synthesis, calorimetry, and phase equilibrium approach to higher pressure phases (B, shy-B, E) in the MgO-SiO₂-H₂O system. (2) Mirko Schonitz, first year Princeton PhD student, will study hydrous equilibria in the CaO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂-H₂O and CaO-MgO-SiO₂-H₂O system. We would concentrate on the silica poor side of the Al₂O₃-CaSiO₃ join in the CaO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂-H₂O (CASH) system, where the largest number of new hydrous phases may be expected. Thermochemistry of the grossular-CaSiO₃ perovskite join would be studied, especially if CaSiO₃ perovskite can be quenched using the cryogenic quench methods developed by Leinenweber (a Princeton-Stony Brook CHiPR alumnus) at ASU. In addition, high pressure polymorphs of CSH phases (extensive low pressure polymorphs are found in cement) would be sought. Their existence may influence the extent of Ca-Mg substitution in pyroxene, garnet, and perovskite phases in the mantle. (3) The extent of Fe-Mg substitution will be studied. (4) Data for model systems will be compared with that for phase studies in rocks (as done by Rapp, Herzberg, and others).

It is suspected that new structures and families of structures will be found in these studies. In addition to petrologic, geochemical, and geophysical significance, the crystal chemical systematics of these phases will be investigated.

Given the large number of chemical variables, it is clear that three seismic observables (V_P, V_S, r ) cannot uniquely define the chemical composition of the Earth’s mantle. Short of direct inversion for mantle composition, many significant mantle issues can be addressed with the current CHiPR data base. In particular, mantle convection is driven by thermally induced buoyancy. Chemically induced buoyancy will significantly affect the style of this convection. If the chemistry of the lower mantle is significantly denser than the upper mantle owing to chemical differences, then layered convection will result (). In short, does mantle layering at the 660 km discontinuity have a significant density increase due to chemical changes? Our equation of state data can be used to address this question.

The aggregate of the lower mantle phases with their crystal structures and chemical composition under the conditions of pressure and temperature that exist within the Earth combine to produce the array of physical properties including density, bulk modulus, and shear modulus, that is inferred from seismic studies. It is through the definition of stable phases, cation partitioning between phases, and the measurement of physical properties at a variety of pressures and temperatures of the individual phases that we are able to ultimately constrain the chemical composition of the earth’s lower mantle. Indeed, a major mission of CHiPR is to provide the laboratory basis for accomplishing this goal.

Mineral density and elasticity within the Earth depend on crystal structure, pressure, temperature, and cation chemistry, in roughly that order. The aggregate properties reflect the mineral properties of the assemblage very nearly in proportion to the volume per cent of the particular mineral. In most models of the lower mantle, oxides of silicon, magnesium, iron, aluminum, and calcium account for over 99% of the molar abundances, with the first three of these accounting for over 90%. Phase equilibria experiments indicate that two perovskites (one Ca rich; one Mg rich) along with magnesiowustite will be the dominant stable phases throughout the lower mantle, with Al and some Fe dissolving into the Mg perovskite phase. Thus the physical properties of these phases dominate these properties of the lower mantle.

From the CHiPR equation of state data (*, *, *, *, *, *) it is possible to define density as a function of composition at a given pressure and temperature within the mantle. In order to assess possible chemical induced density differences between the upper and lower mantle, we present the effect of chemistry on density at conditions in the upper portion of the lower mantle. The heavy line in Figure 15 illustrates the chemical compositions in the MgO-FeO-SiO₂ ternary that are consistent with the PREM density at 1000 km depth () as calculated following the discussion in *). Any chemical composition that falls on this line is compatible with the density at this depth. This diagram demonstrates that density depends strongly on iron content and only marginally on silica content. Also projected on this diagram is the composition of pyrolite, which falls very close to the line. Thus, the density of pyrolite, accounting for phase transformations as well as pressure and temperature is indistinguishable from that at this depth in the lower mantle. We conclude that the acceptable chemical models of this portion of the lower mantle, while they may differ from pyrolite, do not have an inherently different density and that, within the framework of the assumptions of the analysis, there is no chemically induced buoyancy associated with the 660 km discontinuity.

At present, the two CHiPR studies of lower mantle compositions based on the perovskite equation of state retain unresolved differences (* and *). The preferred lower mantle compositions, labeled on this diagram as WWLZ and SHFM, while different, both lie on this line, indicating that the differences in data and assumptions yield the same calculated density at this depth. We attribute the differences in composition to differences in the temperature dependence of the bulk modulus which is needed to fix the silica content. This parameter is a higher order derivative of the experimental data and is more uncertain that density for these data sets. The more recent data of further support the position of the constant density curve.

The diagram does not include the effects of Al or Ca on mineral density. However, aluminum does not form a separate phase at this depth but is dissolved into the Mg-perovskite (). The most common substitution reaction is for 2 Al to substitute for an (Mg,Si) pair. Even large amounts of this substitution in the garnet system has a very small effect on the density. The equation of state study of *) further demonstrates that the presence of CaSiO₃ perovskite would not affect these conclusions. Thus, the CHiPR data base, while yet incomplete and not in total agreement, already has profound implications on the dynamics of the Earth’s mantle.

We plan to continue the equation of state studies, to resolve differences among approaches, to extend the pressure and temperature fields, and to enhance the data base with acoustic properties at mantle pressures and temperatures. This enhanced data base has the potential for defining many outstanding issues concerning the radial and lateral variations within the Earth.

To constrain the density and other properties of the mantle, phase equilibria, thermochemistry, and equation of state of phases in the MgO-FeO-SiO₂ and MgO-FeO-Al₂O₃ system must be better known. In tandem with making it easier, technologically, to work at 20-30 GPa, we plan a systematic study of the MgO-FeO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ system in that range. Major questions are the effect of Fe and Al on the extent of the garnet, ilmenite, and perovskite phases, thermochemistry of iron bearing phases, and the interplay of cation content, aluminum content, T, and P in determining order-disorder in the garnet.

The conclusion of these discoveries is that "gas-ice" compounds are ubiquitous at high pressures. As basic constituents of a giant planet, these compounds are analogous to the silicate mineral constituents of a terrestrial planet like the Earth. During the next phase of this research, the stability of these compounds will be explored over a wide range of low and high temperatures appropriate for the outer solar system.

These gas-ice compounds are high P analogs of methane-water clathrates studied in an Exxon-Princeton collaboration. Gas hydrate formation is a complication to oil and gas pipelines and thus the general principles governing this class of compounds can have practical applications.

The most important industrial application of high-pressure technology is the synthesis of the superhard materials, diamond and cubic boron nitride. Manufacture of these two materials is dominated by three large companies, General Electric in the United States, DeBeers in Europe and South Africa, and Sumitomo in Japan. In addition, smaller companies operate in many countries including China where hundreds of small units produce large quantities of relatively low-quality diamonds for industrial purposes. Development of diamond and cubic boron nitride materials with superior abrasive and cutting properties requires extensive research and thus far only the larger companies have been able to devote sufficient resources to make the highest-grade material in large quantities. In addition to high-pressure diamond synthesis, many research organizations are exploring the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process for making diamond, but commercial applications are thus far limited and the process is not competitive with high pressure for making abrasive materials or for large single crystals.

The other area of activity is based on the need for high-quality synthetic diamonds that are not available because the diamond industry does not believe a sufficient market exists for such diamonds. Single crystal diamonds on the order of 0.2-0.5 carat are used in diamond-anvil cells for generating high pressure. The quality of the diamonds directly affects the achievable maximum pressure and the accessibility of the spectral range for in situ spectroscopic measurements. Traditionally, natural diamonds have been used in diamond-anvil cell experiments, but, because of limited supply and increasing demand, stones that are free of flaws and impurities are becoming increasingly difficult to obtain. Delivery time for diamonds suitable for ultra-high pressure experiments often is more than a year and even then one cannot be confident that the quality will be good enough. Most natural diamonds (> 95%) show strains, which weaken the diamonds. Furthermore, more than 90% of natural diamonds (type Ia) contain nitrogen impurities, which limit the spectroscopic accessibility for in-situ optical measurements. In addition, the price of gem-quality diamonds increases exponentially with weight. We commonly use 0.25-carat diamonds for the diamond cell because it is economically prohibitive to perform experiments requiring use of larger diamond anvils.

A solution to the problems associated with the use of natural diamonds is to make synthetic diamonds. There are at least three major scientific applications for single-crystal, high-quality diamonds, i.e., diamond-anvil cells, synchrotron x-ray monochromators, and windows for various kinds of experiments conducted under extreme conditions or where diamond transparency to specific radiation is an important factor. There are also applications where the availability of isotopically-pure diamonds could be important.

Single-crystal diamonds for scientific purposes have to be synthesized with very specific applications in mind, but in relatively small quantities. Such synthetic diamonds are not commercially available from diamond-manufacturing companies such as General Electric and DeBeers because of insufficient market for the product. The only non-industrial research efforts for high-pressure diamond growth that we are aware of are in Japan (National Institute for Research in Inorganic Materials, NIRIM), China (Academy of Sciences), and Russia (Institute for High Pressure Physics in Troitsk and Institute of Mineralogy and Petrography in Novosibirsk). There are none in North America or Western Europe. Of these, probably only NIRIM has the capability to be competitive with industry.

A pilot project has been initiated at the Geophysical Laboratory to explore the possibility of growing diamonds using our own apparatus. Yingwei Fei spent several weeks in Japan during 1995 and successfully synthesized single-crystal diamonds (up to 0.4 carat) in collaboration with scientists at NIRIM. He also conducted synthesis experiments with our existing high-pressure facility at the Geophysical Laboratory. The results of the preliminary experiments are very encouraging. Figure 16 shows some of the diamonds that were synthesized -- the one at the top was grown at the Geophysical Laboratory and the other two at NIRIM. A new postdoctoral fellow with substantial experience in diamond synthesis in Prof. Wakatsuki's laboratory at the University of Tsukuba, Wei Li, will work with Fei in the pilot study.

The techniques for growing large single crystal diamonds at high pressure are well documented in industrial and research literature. Seeded growth of diamond is achieved by transporting carbon from a supply source to a small diamond seed through a molten metal alloy solvent, driven by a temperature difference between the supply and the seed. The typical synthesis pressure is about 6 GPa and the temperatures may vary from 1250 to 1500° C, depending on the type of metal alloy solvents used in the experiments. Large-volume, flat-belt apparatus is commonly used to generate high pressure (e.g., General Electric, DeBeers, Sumitomo, and NIRIM all use this method). High temperature is achieved with a sleeve resistance heater. It has been demonstrated that cubic-anvil apparatus can also be used for the same purpose (e.g., University of Tsukuba). In order to grow a large crystal, the reaction chamber must be optimized according to the capacity of the hydraulic press. The growth rate is controlled primarily by the temperature gradient across the reaction chamber. The key to growing a perfect crystal is to keep the system parameters constant over the experimental time at the desired pressure-temperature conditions. The optical properties of the synthetic diamonds can be manipulated by controlling the impurities, and the impurity concentrations are reduced or controlled by doping other elements in the metal solvent. For example, nitrogen impurities can be removed by adding dopants such as Al, Ti, and Zr.

In order to grow one-carat crystals, a heater size of 10 mm in diameter by 18 mm in length is required. Ivan Getting has designed a single-stage, cubic-anvil device that appears to be ideal for our purposes and which has been purchased from Rockland Research in New York. This device will accommodate a pressure medium with a cube edge length of 24 mm and be capable of pressures and temperatures in the correct range for diamond synthesis, i.e., 6-7 GPa and 1250-1500°C. The device will be used with our new 1500-ton hydraulic press, which will be installed soon at the Geophysical Laboratory. The sleeve heater dimension is 12 mm in diameter by 24 mm in length, which will provide a sufficient reaction chamber for growing one-carat diamond crystals. The temperature gradient of the cell assembly will be characterized and controlled by proper heater design so that ideal crystal growth conditions are achieved. From our previous experience and reports of other groups (e.g., NIRIM and General Electric), it takes about 50 hours to grow 0.5 carat crystals and 100 hours to grow one-carat crystals.

If we demonstrate that diamond synthesis for scientific purposes is feasible, we will evaluate what steps must be taken to produce enough material to satisfy the requirements of our research and also for those in other laboratories who might be interested. For example, it may be necessary to obtain a press and pressure vessel in order to provide for a larger sample volume.

Acoustic velocities of mantle minerals at high pressure and temperature have the promise to reveal important constraints on the state of the Earth’s interior. Our advances in acoustic measurements in the multi-anvil system at Stony Brook coupled with our advances in large volume high pressure studies at the Brookhaven synchrotron present an extremely exciting possibility that we plan to pursue. We will combine these technologies to measure acoustic velocities of mantle minerals and x-ray diffraction at the same time. This will provide a direct pressure and temperature calibration, stress information, and sample volume along with a measure of the elastic properties. We will primarily use sintered polycrystalline samples of the type previously described by *). Based on our current successes, we should immediately be able to make these measurements at 12 GPa and 1200° C simultaneously. Optimization of the sample cell and reduction of sample size may allow a doubling of this pressure at temperatures as high as 2000° C. This facility will be the first in the world to make these measurements and represents the convergence of independent technological advances that have been made in CHiPR.

Data from this new system will allow us to directly address the following Earth issues:

• Is the Earth’s mantle chemically layered?
• Is the whole mantle convecting as a single system or is it layered?
• What is the magnitude of the lateral temperature variations that are consistent with seismic tomography?
• What is the magnitude of the lateral density variations that are consistent with seismic tomography?

The data will also further many of the material studies of CHiPR by providing the following types of information:

• Measure higher order derivatives of volume with respect to pressure and temperature, in particular obtain much more accurate values for ¶ K/¶ T
• Measure pressure and temperature dependence of shear modulus
• Use these new data to constrain properties of atomic interactions
• Do the rheological properties scale as s /m as shear modulus changes with pressure and/or composition for a given crystal structure?
• Determine a primary pressure standard for x-ray diffraction at high P and T ).

This project is feasible. Using the multi-anvil cubic cell at Brookhaven, we have developed techniques to measure pressure and temperature with x-rays as well as the magnitude of non-hydrostatic stress. Techniques have been developed to remove these stresses, yielding accurate equations of state. We can now measure sample volume to 0.1%.

Over the past two years, our Stony Brook laboratory has developed the capability of routinely performing ultrasonic experiments on 2-3 millimeter-sized single crystal and polycrystalline specimens to pressures of 12 GPa at room temperature, and has conducted pilot experiments to simultaneous temperatures of 1200° C. The experiments feature a stress-free transducer location, sample-friendly cell assemblies and reversible and reproducible velocity measurements.

These ultrasonic experiments have been carried out in a 1000-ton Uniaxial Split Cylinder Apparatus (USCA-1000) which consists of a 1000-ton Kennedy-Getting type hydraulic press (Figure 17a) modified for use with a Walker-type split cylinder multi-anvil module ) cavity contouring the second-stage anvil system of 8 tungsten carbide cubes (MA-8).

Diagonally opposite corners of the uppermost cube are truncated to yield lapped surfaces on which the transducer and sample are mounted (Figure 17b). This cube thus serves as the buffer rod to transmit the acoustic signals to and from the sample. Figure 18 is a cross section of the octahedral cell assembly and the buffer rod cube designed to perform acoustic velocity measurements. The sample is positioned flush with the surface of the octahedron, for the room temperature measurements. The cell pressures are calibrated from transitions in the enclosed pressure sensors (in Bi at 2.55 and 7.7 GPa and in ZnTe at 9.6 and 12.0 GPa).

The P and S wave velocities of polycrystalline Lucalox alumina have been measured up to 10 GPa at room temperature in this apparatus (*Li et al., 1996b). The results show that the velocities increase linearly with pressure up to 10 GPa for both P and S waves, (Figure 19). These results are consistent with previous results obtained at 0-1 GPa and 0-0.4 GPa. The velocity measurements are reproducible and do not damage the specimen, which may be re-used for other experiments.

*) have extended these ultrasonic measurements to single crystal specimens of both synthetic forsterite (Mg₂SiO₄) and natural San Carlos olivine and measured the shear elastic moduli to > 12 GPa at room temperature (Figure 20). These data refute the shear velocity anomaly observed by at pressures above 8 GPa.

* have measured the P and S velocities in polycrystalline specimens of both the olivine and wadsleyite (b ) phases of Mg₂SiO₄; the data for the beta phase (Figure 21) extend the experiments of *) by a factor of 4 in pressure and are remarkably reproducible.

At the recent U.S.-Japan High Pressure Seminar, *) and *) reported our first experiments on polycrystalline olivine at simultaneous pressures of 10 GPa and temperatures of 900° C using a new cell assembly (Figure 22) with NaCl surrounding the specimen (and thus providing a pseudo-hydrostatic pressure environment).

The experimental developments described above dramatically expand the range of P-T space which can be explored in ultrasonic studies of the elasticity of minerals and ceramics (Figure 23). Limitations of the current experimental approach include:

1. Uncertainty in cell pressures. Calibration at room temperature is based on interpolation between a few fixed points. Calibration at high temperature is difficult due to the influence of the P-T-t path utilized in the experiment.
1. Length changes of the specimen at high P and T must be known to convert observed travel-time to velocities. At high temperatures, this requires knowledge of the volume of the specimen.

With the proposed integration with the multi-anvil facility at Brookhaven, these limitations will be removed by the following:

1. In situ determination of pressure and temperature, via the measurements of the volume of the NaCl standard of the Decker (or other) equation-of-state.
1. Direct measurement of the sample dimensions as a function of pressure and temperature.

Although extreme P-T conditions can be achieved with a laser-heated DAC, such experiments have suffered from large uncertainties in temperature and sample characterization; the results have often been perceived as ambiguous and subjected to controversies. In response, we have developed a "double hot-plate" method to resolve the problem . Using this technique, uniform and well-defined high-T conditions (3000 K ±1%) can be generated in the laser-heated sample at high pressures, and phase diagrams and P-V-T equations of state of Earth materials along an entire geotherm can now be determined accurately by x-ray diffraction. The double hot-plate method consists of the following four essential features.

(1) Uncertainty of temperature measurement is reduced by sandwiching an opaque sample between two layers of transparent media. If the sample is not intrinsically opaque, it is made opaque by covering it with metallic coatings or mixed with metallic powders. This practice is in contrast to conventional laser-heating experiments where the difference in transparency between sample and media was not always well defined. Often the sample was semi-transparent and sometimes no media were used. Heating occurred throughout the sample and the incandescence emission spectra from the entire temperature gradient in the sample and media were combined and collected. Corrections and assumptions that could introduce uncertainty were applied to resolve the peak temperature from the combined spectra. In the present double hot-plate configuration, however, heating only occurs at the media-sample interface where the laser is absorbed and incandescence spectra of the opaque sample can only be emitted from the interface. Although the transparent medium still has a steep temperature gradient, it also has a very low emissivity, i.e., the thermal spectrum from the medium is insignificant in comparison to that of the highly emissive, opaque hot plates. The corresponding uncertainty in temperature measurement is minimized.

(2) Axial temperature gradient is eliminated by focusing two coaxial but opposing laser beams on opposite sides of the opaque sample. Powers of the two beams are adjusted so that both sample-medium interfaces are heated to the same temperature. Acting like planar heat sources, the two "hot plates" produce a uniform temperature in the sample between the plates. A symmetrical diamond cell (sample at equal distance from both sides) capable of 100 GPa has been built and tested for this application (*.

(4) The sample is characterized in situ at high P-T by x-ray diffraction. By enlarging the spot of uniform temperature to > 20 mm and reducing the size of x-ray beam to < 10 mm, the P-T conditions of the x-ray diffraction measurement are well-defined. Using two bent Kirkpatrick-Baez (K-B) focusing mirrors developed by B. Yang, P. Eng, and M. Rivers at GSECARS , a 5 mm x-ray beam with a hundredfold increase in intensity is realized at the superconducting wiggler beamline at NSLS. The greatly improved spatial and time resolution of x-rays ensures the EDXD probing of a uniform and constant high P-T region within the double hot plates. Possible crystal growth at laser-heated high temperatures had been a problem for polycrystalline EDXD. The problem is resolved by rotating the DAC around the axis of the anvils . With laser and x-ray beams passing through the rotation axis, the heating spot is unaffected by rotation. The "coarse-grain" effect is further reduced by multi-element solid-state detectors which record multiple orientations.

The double hot-plate system will thus allow x-ray diffraction measurements at well characterized pressures and temperatures. Studies of phase equiibria, equations of state, and melting will thus be enabled at the conditions of the entire interior of the Earth.

References

TABLE 1

Phase D H^f_{drop soln.} D H^f_oxides D H^f_elements

Phase A (#82) 787.5 ± 2.15 -181.8 -7071.1

Antigorite (94NZ62)† 8118.5 ± 69.2 -2246.4 -70,942

Antigorite (JVCA3) 8081.2 ± 48.7 -2209.1 -70,905

Talc 554 ± 0.5 -164.7 -5897.2

Phase B* 792 -23.9 -11,170

Superhydrous B* 718 -10.9 -9328

Chondrodite* 471 -93.3 -5206

† Natural antigorite samples were provided by J.V. Chernosky. Sample 94NZ62 contains 3.3% FeO while sample JVCA3 contains 1.4 % FeO as determined by electron microprobe analyses.

* Synthesized by P. Burnley

Progress to date and plans for future (See also tables attached)

CHiPR faculty and staff are engaged in a wide variety of activities in addition to our main efforts in scientific research and technological development. All three of our institutions have established reputations in the education of undergraduate and graduate students, predoctoral and postdoctoral fellows. In the past three years, the CHiPR institutions have awarded 8 Ph. D.degrees, 3 M. S. degrees, and offered advanced training to 20 predoctoral and postdoctoral fellows. CHiPR has provided a much wider range of role models from whom these young scientists can obtain their education.

In Section IV, we focus on those CHiPR educational and outreach activities which reflect the "value added" contributions of a science and technology center. These include K-12 education, summer research programs for undergraduates, organization and sponsorship of workshops, technical consulting, laboratory access by non-CHiPR scientists, development and operation of facilities at government laboratories, linkages to the industrial sector and outreach to underrepresented groups. We do not include activities of our staff and students which would most likely occur without the existence of CHiPR [scientific seminars and public lectures, popular science writing (e. g., that of Robert Hazen) and normal scientific interactions with international colleagues].

CHiPR educational programs have emulated the multi-institutional, inter-disciplinary model which has characterized the CHiPR research agenda. The educational programs have been constructed upon the strengths of the research programs and have reached out to groups not usually served by traditional academic research. The scientists and staff members of CHiPR have designed and implemented programs which seek to increase the science literacy of the general public and encourage students to choose science as a career.

CHiPR and the Museum of Long Island Natural Sciences have established an educational outreach program entitled "Journey to the Center of the Earth." This program is designed to disseminate information on CHiPR research to students in grades K through 12 and the general public, with an emphasis on high schools. It is hoped that the program will increase the level of scientific literacy among the people of the Long Island community and encourage students to consider careers in the sciences.

The "Journey to the Center of the Earth" program has been supported by CHiPR via its core funding and supplemental grants from the NSF Division of Education and Human Resources, which have totaled $268,000 over 3 years. The program is under the supervision of Glenn Richard, CHiPR Education Coordinator, who is responsible for the continued development of the programs and exhibits, in conjunction with the Museum Director and the Director of CHiPR. Working closely with school teachers on Long Island, Glenn has to developed programs which provide school children with hands-on learning experiences. During the past year, CHiPR has also sponsored the creation of an education resource center which will provide school teachers the skills and activities they need to teach their students about the process of science.

The new Earth Science Educational Resource Center (ESERC) will conduct workshops, distribute public domain computer software, distribute educational materials and generally be available as a source of educational tools for teachers. During summer 1995, 13 earth science teachers enrolled in a workshop at ESERC: "Research Projects for Earth Science Classes." This course engaged teachers in hands-on activities that can be used as a basis for research projects for their students. The teachers enrolled in the workshop participated in activities that included making diamonds, studying tidal flow in a local salt marsh, analyzing peat stratigraphy in the salt marsh, determining soil particle size distribution in the Long Island Pine Barrens and relating it to the vegetation, creating physical models of tectonic plate boundaries, and navigating the World Wide Web. During the school year follow-up, Richard and his colleague, Karen Lutzer will work with the teachers as they implement these projects in their classes. On May 17, 1996, CHiPR will work with the Long Island Groundwater Research Institute on a teacher workshop designed to bring "hands-on" science into the schools.

CHiPR and the Department of Earth and Space Sciences (ESS) have arranged for students enrolled in Brian Vorwald’s Honors Earth Sciences class at Sayville High School to receive University credit (GEO 101 and 111) for successfully completing the course, and completing a research project under the direction of ESS faculty and Glenn Richard. To facilitate the utilization of inquiry-based science education in the schools and to disseminate information to the general public, CHiPR is in the process of developing a World Wide Web site at ESERC: Long Island’s Natural Environment On-line (LINE On-line). This Web site will function as a virtual "museum" that provides information on Long Island’s geology and ecology to schools and the general public through text, images, sound and video clips and interactive Java programs. LINE On-line will include lesson plans for teachers and "field trips" to natural areas on Long Island that exemplify particular natural phenomena. The site will also serve as a medium for publication of reports that students write that describes their research projects.

CHiPR’s collaborative efforts involve numerous programs with other educational units on the Stony Brook campus, including the Center for Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education, the Department of Technology and Society, Science and Technology Entry Programs, Project WISE (Women in Science and Engineering), the Center for Excellence and Innovation in Education, and the Museum of Long Island Natural Sciences. Many of these programs provide hands-on science experiences for women and minority secondary school students and undergraduates. Being campus-based means that we are able to introduce these students to CHiPR facilities and research scientists on a regular basis. This is an important aspect of our larger effort to inspire underrepresented populations to consider careers in the sciences, and to increase the level of scientific literacy among young people in general.

During the summer of 1995, CHiPR conducted an intensive four-week "Hydrogeology Research Experience for Ninth Graders" for ten students from the Summer Science Camp program of the Department of Technology and Society. The students installed groundwater monitoring wells, collected water samples from ponds and the wells, and performed chemical analysis on the samples. They wrote and illustrated a report on their methods and results and posted it on the World Wide Web. In the autumn, fifteen students from the Summer Science Camp came back for four Saturdays to participate in the Saturday Science program. CHiPR developed the hands-on activities for this program, which included "Drawing from Nature," "The World Under a Microscope," "Patterns and Fractals," and "The Earth: Inside and Out." CHiPR, the Museum and Astronomy program are conducting "Summer Science Getaway" in 1996 for high school students to do field work and lab work in Earth Sciences (2 weeks) and astronomy (1 week).

The Museum of Long Island Natural Sciences draws more than 10,000 primary school students each year, and is conveniently located in the same building as CHiPR. The proximity of the Museum of Long Island Natural Sciences has allowed CHiPR to develop programs specifically suited for class visits to the Museum, such as "Earth Shakers," for kindergarten through 3rd graders, which explores how the interior of the Earth affects its surface, and uses hands-on tools to investigate such properties as color, shape, size, texture, weight, density, volume, and magnetism in minerals. Using a shake table that simulates earthquake motion, the children design and construct buildings to withstand an earthquake. For 4th graders through 6th graders, the "Journey to the Center of the Earth" program provides investigation into the relationship between earthquakes, volcanoes, and plate tectonic boundaries, and asks students to discover what significance their common locations might infer. Hands-on activities examine mantle processes, magnetism, mafic and felsic density differences, and fault mechanics. These courses introduce plate tectonics in a manner understandable to the primary school student. For 6th through 8th grade, the "Inside the Earth" program relates the Earth’s interior to seismology, mineralogy, and plate tectonics.

One of the most successful and versatile programs developed in the "Journey to the Center of the Earth" project is the ‘Lets Make Diamonds’ program, which offers students a sampling of the innovative research into the nature of our planet’s interior that is conducted at CHiPR. With the guidance of CHiPR staff, participants in the program are encouraged to devise and conduct their own experiments, so that they learn to conceptualize scientific inquiry as a reasoned and carefully executed process of discovery. Included in the program is an illustrated talk and a guided tour of the High Pressure Laboratory with its state-of-the-art research equipment. Although much of what the students learn is related to the activities of CHiPR, the knowledge they gain and the techniques they learn apply to Earth Science in general.

The "Let’s Make Diamonds" program was initially designed for a selected audience of high school students and interested adults (mostly teachers). It was essentially a "show-and-tell" session of one to two hours in duration. However, during the past two years, we have realized a broader potential for this program and have expanded it into a "mini-course" and test-marketed it with groups of outstanding women undergraduate and high school students. Project WISE (Women in Science and Engineering) is a multi-faceted program at Stony Brook designed to challenge women who show academic promise or interest in math, science or engineering. Supported by two major grants from the National Science Foundation, the project will engages participants in the excitement of mathematics and science by providing unique research experiences and classes. Project WISE includes two major populations: (1) a group of undergraduate students who are specifically recruited for this program and nurtured during their tenure at the university; and (2) a group of high school students from the Long Island area who are identified as tenth graders and guided through a progressively more intensive program during their high school careers.

CHiPR has cultivated a strong working relationship with Project WISE at Stony Brook over the past two years. Over the past three semesters, 75 undergraduate women have participated in a four-session (4 hours/session) version of "Let’s Make Diamonds" which includes introductory lectures on the Earth’s interior, thermodynamics and phase transformations and high-pressure techniques. Each student has the opportunity to prepare and run a high-pressure experiment on graphite, analyze the run products by x-ray diffraction and other techniques, and write a report on their experience. During Fall 1995 and Spring 1996, three groups of high school students (11th graders) have enrolled in the four-session version of this program. With the guidance of the Earth Science Educational Resource Center, they will be posting their final report on CHiPR’s World Wide Web server. The Center for Excellence and Innovation in Education on campus has provided funds to "Let’s Make Diamonds" for supplementing transportation costs of ethnically diverse school districts.

We have been pleased by the success of this program in reaching out to different student populations and believe that the relationship with Project WISE is an excellent example of synergy between two NSF-funded programs.

Since 1992, CHiPR has sponsored scholarships for selected undergraduates to visit Stony Brook for 10 weeks during the summer. In 1994 and 1995 this Summer Scholars program was supported by an NSF grant of $90,000 (Undergraduate Research Experiences in High Pressure Geophysics) which has been renewed for another year. This program enabled us to invite 26 students to Stony Brook and conduct individual research projects. The participants were drawn from a variety of undergraduate institutions and major fields of study (see Tables 2 and 3 and Figure 24 below). They were housed in the Stony Brook dormitories and were able to socialize with each other when not working in their laboratories. The student participants conducted individual projects which yielded results in the ten week program. Their experiences spanned most of the elements of academic research including reporting of the results to other scientists.

In each of the past two years, we had nearly 400 inquiries and 75 formal applications for the program as a result of our national mailing to more than 2,000 colleges and universities around the country. We made special efforts to send information to historically black colleges as well as small liberal arts colleges. The attached Table 2 summarizes our summer participants over the past four years.

The student-advisor relationship in the summer program was modeled after the relationship between the graduate students and their advisors in the department. Thus, students were given individual projects and a good deal of independence and responsibility. At the same time, the advisors were always available for consultation and guidance. In the first weeks of the program, the advisors spent time training the students on technique and safety. During the following weeks, the students and advisors had almost daily contact in the laboratories. Each summer one faculty member serves as the mentor for the class of Summer Scholars; Kurt Leinenweber and John Parise have both served in this capacity.

In addition to the research experience, students were encouraged to explore Long Island and New York City. Each summer CHiPR Educational Coordinator, Glenn Richard, has guided the Summer Scholars on an exploration of the upper Carmans River by canoe. George Harlow, Curator of Mineralogy at the American Museum of Natural History has hosted the Summer Scholars for a behind-the scenes look at the mineral collection. Following this event, ESS Department personnel led them on a geological exploration of Central Park, in search of Cameron’s Line.

We have also visited collaborating CHiPR research institutions at Princeton University and the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C. on a "field trip" led by Program Coordinator John Parise, along with graduate students and postdocs from MPI and the Department of Earth and Space Sciences. While in Washington, they were also able to tour the gem and mineral collection at the Smithsonian Institution (including a chance to wear the crown of Empress Josephine) through the courtesy of research associate Jeffrey Post, and the FBI forensic laboratory.

One of the long-term objectives of the Summer Scholars Program is to encourage those students to pursue post-graduate education in science. Of the 26 students who have participated in this program over the past four years, five have subsequently enrolled in the graduate geosciences program at Stony Brook (including four from the class of 1994).

The Geophysical Laboratory hosted twelve high school and college students during the summer of 1995. Five students worked on CHiPR-related projects ranging from production of a video on high pressure research to growth of diamonds. During August, all the students wrote abstracts describing their work and gave short talks on their results at a student symposium attended by many staff members and postdoctoral fellows. The summer program was very successful and we plan to have a similar program in 1996.

Two high school students, Aaron Andalman and Marc Hudacsko, who worked at the Geophysical Laboratory in 1994 with postdoctoral associate, Bob Downs, gave a paper at the Spring 1995 AGU meeting in Baltimore. The title of their paper was "An electron density study of the bonding of Na and Oco in low albite." In May 1995, Andalman and Hudacsko received one of four First Awards for their project, "Determination of Bonding and Electron Density in Crystals," in the Team Competition at the 46th International Science and Engineering Fair, held by Science Service at Hamilton, Ontario. Andalman is now attending Stanford University and Hudacsko is at the University of Maryland.

During the Summer, 1993, three visitors worked on projects in the Calorimetry Laboratory: M. Jakubowski (Chemistry Sophomore; J. Trybulski (high school teacher), and J. Vartuli (Engineering Junior from Yale). In 1994, Princeton Chemistry Freshman, Owen Hahn, did likewise.

All Princeton undergraduates write a senior thesis; CHiPR has sponsored the following:

Susan Ellsworth - (Geological Engineering) "Energetics of Radiation Damage in Zircon." (1993) Now in graduate school in Materials Science in Stanford.

JoAnn Lysne - (Physics) "Energetics of Disorder in NiAl2O4." (1993)

Now in graduate school in Oceanography, Texas A & M.

Tina Ghosh - (Civil Engineering) Problem related to nuclear waste containment. (1995)

Joseph Teltser (Chemical Engineering) Energetics of cobalt rare Earth perovskites. (1996)

A. Navrotsky (President, Mineralogical Society of America) continued her distinguished lecture tour co-sponsored by MSA and CHiPR at the University of Georgia, Georgia Tech and Georgia State in fall 1993. These were popular lectures aimed at undergraduates and entitled "Mineralogy, Materials and the Environment" and "Mineralogy of the Earth’s Interior."

In order to share and disseminate new results and future planning, CHiPR has helped to organize and sponsor workshops which have been directed at two different audiences, the experimental high-pressure community and the broader geoscience community. In addition to workshops, CHiPR also provides access to its facilities and staff as a means of sharing knowledge.

A Multi Anvil APS Design Workshop On February 20, 1993 D. Weidner organized a workshop to discuss large volume press designs for the in situ work at APS. This was attended by J. Bass and G. Koster van Groos (U. Illinois), D. Walker and P. McNutt (Lamont), D. Heinz and M. Rivers (U. Chicago), B. Luth (U. Alberta), L-C. Ming (U. Hawaii), and I. Getting, J. Tyburczy, J. Parise, K. Leinenweber, R. Liebermann, Y. Wang, M. Vaughan, T. Gasparik, R. Pacalo, Y. Meng, and D. Weidner, all associated with Stony Brook.

APS Planning On the weekend of February 27 1993, several CHiPR members (Don Weidner, Mike Vaughan, and Yanbin Wang from Stony Brook and Charlie Prewitt and Russ Hemley from the Geophysical Lab) attended a workshop in Chicago, to put the finishing touches on the two proposals for the GeoCARS sector at the Advanced Photon Source. The total budget for the sector (which includes two beamlines with all the hutches, x-ray optics, monochrometers, and lab equipment) will probably exceed $15,000,000.

The Multi-Anvil Workshop sponsored by CHiPR-Geophysical Lab on 23 May 1993. A workshop on the science and technology of multi-anvil, high-pressure apparatus was held at the Geophysical Laboratory on May 23, 1993, just prior to the Spring AGU Meeting in Baltimore. The Workshop was conducted on an informal basis with emphasis on discussion and exchange of ideas not possible in the usual scientific meetings. The program included status reports from various multi-anvil laboratories plus discussion of specific technical issues.

The Satellite Workshop on Synchrotron Radiation at High Pressure held at Stony Brook University on July 17, 1994 was organized by D. Weidner. The Workshop was sponsored by the SRI-94 organization, CHiPR, and associated with the IUCr. The Workshop consisted of a full day with twelve presentations focusing on the current status of high pressure research using synchrotron radiation, along with ample time for discussion and followed by an open air clam bake which provided a background for further stimulating interactions.

Multi-Anvil Design Workshop The final conceptual design of the multia anvil APS apparatus was presented by the design team (D. Weidner, leader; M. Vaughan, I. Getting, M. Manghnani) to members of the high pressure community during a two-day workshop at Stony Brook in Oct., 1994.. In all, 14 scientists attended and the proposed conceptual design was endorsed by this group. Action items were identified for turning these plans into a working system.

CHiPR, with emphasis on mineral physics, and the U. S. CSEDI (Cooperative Studies of the Earth’s Deep Interior) Initiative, with goals of understanding the structure and dynamics of the mantle and core, share common interests. Over the past three years, CHiPR has taken the lead in organizing two workshops, as well as participating actively in the national CSEDI meetings in Santa Fe. These meetings have been very useful in formulating questions that can be looked at simultaneously by the tools of mineral physics, seismology and geodynamics.

A CSEDI Workshop, "The relationship of mineral physics to the CSEDI initiative" co-sponsored by CHiPR and NSF Earth Sciences, was held on September 12-14, 1993 at the Rams Head Inn on Shelter Island, N. Y. Convened by R. Liebermann and R. O’Connell (Harvard University), the workshop focused on the topic "Physical Properties of the Upper Mantle and Transition Zone: Laboratory Observations and Geophysical Modeling" and brought together 22 scientists from the fields of mineral physics and petrology, seismology and geodynamics.

A CSEDI Workshop on Earth Models was held at the Sandy Hill Conference Center in Princeton, New Jersey, on May 19-21, 1994. This Workshop (funded by NSF-EAR and CHiPR) was organized by A. Navrotsky and D. J. Weidner of CHiPR, B. Romanowicz of U. C. Berkeley and M. Richards of The University of Washington. Its goals were to bring together representative members of the seismological, mineral physics and geodynamics communities, identify the needs and concerns, and initiate a process for the construction of the new reference model. This collaborative effort, in addition to refining earth models, hopes to identify other areas in which these communities can work together to better understand our planet. It was attended by 22 people. An article was published in EOS which describes the major issues and plans.

In 1995, the CHiPR sub-contract to Ivan Getting at the University of Colorado for consultation and collaboration on design and construction of high-pressure apparatus has been expanded. For many years, Getting has been devoting substantial amounts of his time to serve as a consultant to the experimental geoscience community. These contributions have now been brought into the CHiPR realm by this expanded role. Outreach activities during this period have involved 16 institutions and 19 laboratories. This support consists largely of analysis and advice covering a range of subjects: These subjects include: 1) absolute pressure and temperature measurement, 2) design and specifications for furnaces, threaded fasteners, novel pressure containers, and optical windows, 3) fabrication of and failure prevention in pressure vessel, 4) information on and selection of material properties, 5) safety in gas high pressure systems, 6) fundamentals of press design and fabrication, and 7) lubrication at high normal stresses. These activities occur largely in response to inquires from colleagues who are encountering specific technical problems in the pursuit of their research objectives. Some interactions develop as a result of conversations at meetings such at the AGU meetings and Gordon Conferences. On occasion Getting will actively seek out colleagues who are known to be working with problems in areas where he can contribute. As a result of these efforts, many experimental programs are proceeding much more successfully than otherwise would have been possible on the same time scale.

The Stony Brook High Pressure Laboratory of CHiPR actively encourages external use of its facilities in two ways: (1) by visiting scientists and students who conduct their own experiments; and (2) by synthesizing samples for study elsewhere. A list of such external usage is given in Table 4a and c below. The Princeton Calorimetry Laboratory has a steady stream of visitors and external users as well (see Table 4b). Alumni of this High Pressure Laboratory now occupy staff positions at a number of high-pressure laboratories and synchrotron facilities around the world, including Kathleen Kingma, Kurt Leinenweber and Rosemary Pacalo at Arizona State University, Wataru Utsumi at SPRING 8, Martin Kunz at ESRF, Thomas Duffy and Yanbin Wang at the Advanced Photon Source of the Argonne National Laboratory and Yusheng Zhao at LANSCE (see below).

Much of the research reported above was performed using the facilities and in collaboration with the staff of various national government laboratories. These laboratories are national resources to which CHiPR staff contribute and from which they benefit in the pursuit of our scientific and technological agenda. Such activity has the additional benefit of bringing our staff and students into direct contact with scientists on the staff of these government laboratories as well as with industrial scientists who are also users of these national facilities. CHiPR participates in the operation and development of facilities at NSLS and APS as described below.

a. National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL)

X7A: This beamline is devoted to energy-dispersive and high-resolution powder X-ray diffractometry. It was originally promoted by David Cox (BNL), Takeshi Egami and Charles Prewitt, constructed with funds from a variety of sources and operated by a consortium that includes Larry Finger, who has developed much of the software used to control the instrument. The machine is one of the premier high-resolution powder diffractometers in the world, with a design that permits considerable flexibility. Using a focusing monochromator and a position-sensitive detector, Finger applied the Rietveld technique to determine the site preferences for Fe2+ in (Mg,Fe)SiO3 perovskites synthesized in multi-anvil devices and in a laser-heated diamond-anvil cell.

X17: Beamline X17 at NSLS is a state-of-the-art superconducting "wiggler" insertion device (ID). The critical energy of the radiation spectrum is 20 keV, which results in substantially higher photon flux (about 100 to 1000 times) than from a bending-magnet beamline in the range 20-60 keV as well as considerable flux up to 100 keV. The energy distribution of X17 is optimum for high-pressure experiments, since photons below 10 keV are almost totally absorbed by diamond anvils or the gaskets on multi-anvils and the broad energy spectrum in high valuable for crystal structural analysis.

X17C: The high-pressure DAC community formed an IDT to develop the beamline at X17C, a side station split from X17, into a dedicated facility for high-pressure DAC research. NSLS provides photons at the shield wall of the storage ring. Basic equipment and maintenance of X17C have been and are supported by another NSF grant and matching funds from IDT members. CHiPR funds provide support for high-pressure research on phase transitions, pressure amorphization, equation of state and stress-strain relation of single-crystal, polycrystalline, and amorphous samples at cryogenic to elevated temperatures.

X17B: This station has been used by materials science, multi-anvil high pressure studies and medical science. Up until now the high pressure program has received 15% of the available beam time at this station. We have recently received approval to make this a high pressure station, with 75% of the time devoted to CHiPR based diamond anvil cell and multi-anvil systems and 25% remaining for the medical science research. This being the end hutch on the superconducting wiggler provides greater access to the experiment than does the X17C side station. The next generation of diamond anvil experiments with laser heating from both sides of the cell requires this greater access. Additional experimental time is also needed to support the expanded capability of the multi-anvil system. Of the total 75%, 25% is for outside users, selected from applicants to NSLS for beam time, and supported by CHiPR facilities and personnel.

U2B: One of the most successful projects undertaken by CHiPR is the design, construction, and commissioning of the U2B infrared beam line at the UV ring of NSLS. This is a state-of-the-art synchrotron infrared beam line, which is unique in the world in terms of its high-brilliance and wide spectral range. In this effort, the diamond-cell group at the Geophysical Lab (Hanfland, Hemley, and Mao) collaborated with G. L. Carr (Corporate Research Center, Grumman Corporation, Bethpage, NY 11714) and Gwyn P. Williams (NSLS), who made important contributions to the design and construction. Carol Hirschmugal (Ph.D. student from Yale, Applied Physics), who is performing her thesis research in surface science at the IR beam lines, and L. Mihaly (Physics Dept. SUNY Stony Brook) also contributed to this effort. The development of the beam line at this time would not have been possible without the support from CHiPR.

CHiPR personnel have been very active in planning a geoscience sector for the APS now under construction at Argonne. We belong to the Consortium for Advanced Radiation Sources (CARS), which is based at the University of Chicago and also is associated with a number of other institutions from within Illinois and outside the state. CARS plans to design, build, and operate three sectors at APS (each with two beamlines and several experimental stations), assigned to subunits called BioCARS, Geo/SoilCARS, and Chem/MatCARS. The GeoSoilEnviroCARS consortium has received funding from NSF and DOE to construct experimental facilities. CHiPR's substantial involvement in this national planning process is under the coordination of the GeoSync Subcommittee (C. T. Prewitt, Chair) of the AGU Committee on Mineral and Rock Physics (R. C. Liebermann, Chair). Recently, the Keck Foundation announced a $2 million grant to CARS for building a High Pressure Facility at APS. This grant is mainly based on planning by CHiPR personnel. Two CHiPR scientists, Tom Duffy and Yanbin Wang, are joining CARS to help with the building and eventually the operation of the high pressure facility.

c. Other National Laboratories

Larry Finger, John Parise, and Don Weidner have collaborated with Robert von Dreele of Los Alamos Neutron Scattering Center (LANSCE) on the collection and analysis of high-pressure, neutron powder diffraction data. Von Dreele installed a Besson-type, high-pressure apparatus on the HIPD beamline at LANSCE and several projects, including studies of hydrogen bonding as a function of pressure, are underway. A recent graduate of Stony Brook, Yusheng Zhao, will be joining Robert von Dreele in support of the high pressure system.

Our interest in garnets and perovskites has enabled A. Navrotsky's group to respond positively to a request to measure the enthalpies of yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), yttrium aluminum perovskite (YAP) and yttrium aluminum monoclinic phase (YAM), materials of importance to optical and laser applications in a project headed by Dr. S. Sambasivan of Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.

The study of superconductors at high pressure poses special challenges and opportunities for CHiPR scientists. High-pressure not only modifies (and in many cases enhances) superconductivity in oxide and organic materials, but it also can serve as a probe of novel bonding environments that lead to superconductivity in the first place. The high-pressure crystallographic group at the Geophysical Laboratory has established ongoing collaborative research efforts with superconductor groups at National Institute for Standards (NIST), Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and Argonne National Laboratory.

CHiPR has extensive and ongoing scientific and technological interactions with colleagues in industrial laboratories concerned with the synthesis and characterization of superhard, non-linear optical, zeolite, oxide and organic superconductor, laser, ceramic and cermet materials. These relationships provide the industrial laboratories with a "window" into the basic science of CHiPR and provides CHiPR staff with opportunities to collaborate on applied research projects and students with entrées into potential jobs (see Table 5 below). We highlight two recent interactions here.

Mao and Hemley have established a fruitful relation with General Electric Superabrasives. Two of our postdoctoral fellows, Andrew Campbell and Yue Meng, were hired in 1995 as research scientists at G.E. Superabrasives. Communications between GE management and CHiPR have been greatly improved. Currently we are discussing collaborative projects of mutual interests, including the production of perfect diamonds. After the success of GE in synthesizing large single crystals of diamond with high purity unmatched by any natural diamonds, we have initiated a program of testing synthetic single crystal diamond for anvil use at ultrahigh pressures. As demonstrated by S. Vohra, the chemically pure, strain-free, perfect diamonds provide an ideal solution to the serious fluorescence problem above 200 GPa as well as for reaching higher pressures. However, due to business considerations, the synthesis project has been terminated and such diamonds are unavailable commercially. GE has supplied us with some residual perfect diamonds from the original pilot project at low cost, and opened the possibility to continue the supply on experimental basis. The need of synthetic diamond is a major new finding that will make possible the next breakthroughs in the field.

Ivan Getting, now an active CHiPR participant, provides support to various organizations through experimental testing of materials at high pressure and temperature, design and analysis of mechanical tests, design and operational assistance for high pressure systems, invention and design of new high pressure systems and exploration of nanoscale materials for high pressure application. In collaboration with Boulder Laser Systems, Boulder, CO: Getting performed high pressure-temperature sintering experiments on a proprietary SiC-based ceramic to explore enhancement of optical transmittance. In collaboration with the US Bureau of Mines: he designed special rock mechanics tests with compliant loading structures to simulate failures in soft rock mine pillars which recently killed 6 miners in Wyoming. In collaboration with Teledyne Wah Chang Corp., Albany, OR: he performed Hertzian stress and strength analysis in support of the development of dense but less polluting shot gun shot for duck hunting. In collaborations with Rockland Research, West Nyack, NY: Getting invented and designed a new large volume high pressure apparatus in response to commercial and research interest in the synthesis of GaN and single crystal diamonds. Additionally he provided fabrication consultation which dramatically increased the reliability of high pressure instrumentation manufactured by Rockland Research. In collaboration with Kennametal Inc., LaTrobe, PA: he explored the state of the art in sintering of nanoscale carbide cermets and their mechanical properties.

Gene Smelik from CHiPR Princeton worked half-time at Exxon, Annandale, on the crystallization of gas hydrates. The Princeton calorimetry Lab, with CHiPR infrastructure support, has made thermochemical measurements on several phases of industrial interests and with industrial collaboration as indicated: Borates (US Borax), zeolites (Mobil Corporation, Unilever, Air Products and Chemicals), and monophase aluminas (Alcoa).

CHiPR has established and cultivated a special relation with the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the Delaware State University (DSU), an historically black institution in Dover, DE. One of our Ph.D. graduates, Dr. Gabriel Gwanmesia (now an Associate Professor in this department) continues his collaboration with CHiPR as an Adjunct Associate Professor in the Mineral Physics Institute at Stony Brook and is engaged in the summer months as a Visiting Professor with NSF CHiPR support. Both Liebermann and Navrotsky have visited Delaware State to give seminars and meet students; the also met the chair of the department and the dean and president of the university. Each summer since 1992 at least one undergraduate African-American student has participated in our Summer Scholars Program.

In September, 1995, Gwanmesia, Liebermann and Joseph Cooke (1993-94 Summer Scholar and now a graduate student at Stony Brook) represented CHiPR at the Fourth National Conference on "Diversity in the Scientific and Technological Workplace" held in Washington under the auspices of the NSF. In March 1996, Gwanmesia made a presentation on the special research and educational collaboration between DSU and CHiPR at the regional conference in Philadelphia focusing on mathematics, science and engineering sponsored by the Quality Education for Minorities Network via a grant from the NSF. We consider this experiment between CHiPR and Delaware State University to be a very successful venture and view it as a role model for future interaction with minority students and historically-black colleges.

A member of the CHiPR Executive Committee is a woman. Women are represented at all levels in CHiPR: faculty, senior staff, postdocs, graduate students, undergraduate thesis students, summer students and administrative staff. The supportive and interactive environment of CHiPR results in a pleasant working environment for all of us.

We have had representative from Australia, Cameroon, China, England, France, Germany, India, Japan, Korea, The Netherlands, Poland, Rumania, Russia and Slovakia. This has enriched us tremendously, to the point that we take our multi-national, polyglot constituency as a perfectly normal and pleasurable way of operating. Because of this diversity, no one group feels singled out as being different.

A. External Users: Stony Brook High Pressure Laboratory

P. Raterron Lille (France) Si diffusion in olivine

L. Galoisy/S. Rossano Paris (France) Phase transformations in Co₂SiO₄

B. External Users: Princeton Calorimetry Laboratory

C. Sample Synthesis at Stony Brook High Pressure Laboratory

(samples synthesized at Stony Brook by our staff and students for studies elsewhere)

*Denotes single crystal specimens

The Center mode of operation establishes a long term basis with substantial funding, provides an interactive environment for cooperative multi-disciplinary approach to focused scientific issues, and creates a platform for interaction with several communities. As CHiPR has matured during the first five years, we have encountered an increasing number of changes in style of operation that would not have been possible without this new mode of operation. The first manifestation of Center funding was the ability to develop new facilities. One of the original motivations for the Center was the realization that the scientific issues that we shared in common were facility limited. Generally, the technology was understood, but it required time and personnel to energize the ideas. Furthermore, successful development requires the capacity for failure. The normal small grants program does not have this flexibility. With the Center, we have made great strides in numerous areas as illustrated in Section III. Particularly demanding was the interfacing of high pressure equipment with synchrotron radiation sources. The implementation of SAM-85 at Brookhaven, the development of the diamond cell IR beamline, the continued growth of the diamond anvil x-ray beam line all were made possible with CHiPR funding. Based on the same premise, we realized that high-pressure calorimetry development was technically feasible and would greatly broaden our scientific horizons. These efforts have already began to bear scientific fruits and will continue to do so in the future.

CHiPR funding enables continuity of technique development. A significant fraction of CHiPR funds is dedicated to support staff, both professional and technical. In particular, without the continuity that Vaughan supplies for SAM 85 at Brookhaven, Gasparik for the USSA-2000 at Stony Brook, Topor for the calorimetry at Princeton, Zha at the Geophysical Laboratory for Brillouin scattering at high pressure, and added technical and shop support, the instrumentation development projects would be impossible. In addition, we call upon each other's technical expertise in sometimes unexpected way.

With CHiPR enabling the first objective, that of improving the facility base, it soon became clear that the internal collaboration and use of many techniques simultaneously is changing our mindset about how to do science. We can ask "what is the best way to attack a problem?" rather than "What do I have available in my lab?" The work on hydrous magnesium silicates discussed earlier exemplifies this. It took the first year and a half of CHiPR for many of our participants to feel comfortable in working with colleagues outside of our own groups. We have progressed from being separate groups, competing for the prize of first discovery, to a working family, still with a competitive spirit, but with a willingness to work together towards common goals. We now have students, postdocs, and senior investigators visiting each other frequently and keeping the phones, faxes, and e-mail networks busy. It has been an intellectually broadening and liberating experience, especially important to the education of our students and postdocs. On a personal level, most of us have become much better colleagues and friends.

Now we are discovering the variety of enriching mechanisms that the Center platform provides to reach out to a diversity of other communities and the manner that the CHiPR can enhance the broader research and education mission. Facility development allows experiments to be done that could not have been done before. The lore that is gained in designing a new cell assembly for attaining record high temperatures in the multi-anvil devices, the exploration of sintered diamond anvils for higher pressures, or improvements in diamond anvil configuration that reaches record pressures is quickly shared with other high pressure laboratories. Soon all such facilities are routinely achieving these previously unattainable goals. Studies such as the carbide testing program, which was important to improve our capabilities is now available to other labs and of interest to industrial labs as well.

The new facilities enable us to synthesize materials that cannot be made in sister high pressure laboratories. Stony Brook is one of the few laboratories in the world and the only one in the US that has routinely synthesized single phase MgSiO3 perovskite, the most abundant mineral in the Earth. Sharing samples with other research groups who wish to measure various physical properties of these materials has enriched the capabilities of these labs and pushed the science further.

With the support staff and the newly developed CHiPR facilities, many outside investigators can pursue their research agendas with our facilities and support. The synchrotron efforts at Brookhaven are particularly noteworthy in this respect. Indeed, these facilities encourage outside users as part of the mandate of the operating policy. Also, the multi-anvil facility and the calorimetry facility are well poised to accommodate a stream of visitors with their own scientific agenda. We have been able to establish a policy of providing housing for visiting students from other labs and cover the experimental costs of pilot studies. In this manner CHiPR is fostering high pressure research for the entire high pressure community.

As science progresses, more can be done but with bigger and better laboratories. National laboratories have taken on the role of providing expensive facilities such as synchrotrons and neutron sources. The single investigator does not have the time or personnel to develop these facilities for his/her own use. CHiPR has enabled us to open this window of opportunity for the Earth science community. We now represent a significant element in the planning and development for the next generation synchrotron, the Advanced Photon Source. Several members of CHiPR faculty and staff play key roles, leading design teams, that will provide the facility base for many Earth science investigators in the future.

The Center platform enables us to exchange ideas with industry. Our Center is not focused on developing marketable products. Rather, we are pursuing basic research on materials. We may discover a material with new and exotic properties that is of use to industry, or we may develop analytical techniques that aid industry in characterizing materials that are of interest to them. In either event, communication is important for knowledge transfer. We outline several examples in Section IV of how we have begun this interaction.

Science education at all levels is a national need. If we are to remain a technologically competitive nation, then we must have technically competent citizens. The Center format provides an opportunity to approach science education with a new perspective. Generally, science is viewed by pre-graduate students as a collection of facts without the excitement of discovery. CHiPR has embarked on a new challenge, to bring the excitement of cutting edge science to the K-12 student. We are focusing on secondary school students, designing a program to complement the standard curriculum and still meet the educational needs of the school system. We will complement classroom aids and lectures with teacher training seminars and laboratory visits. Reaching to the undergraduate student, we have developed a summer scholars program for talented juniors/seniors. We have been very successful in reaching underrepresented minorities in this program and have stimulated many of the scholars to pursue high pressure research in graduate school.

Probably the most significant common theme of all of these examples is that the Center mode of operation allows us to take risks. With the long term stability and the broad support for the infrastructure, we can afford to make mistakes. Some of these efforts will be learning experiences. Some will be exceptionally successful; however, without the Center we would not have been able to explore either.

Finally, the reality of the Center provides a focus for people in industry, government, and universities who need information about or help with high-pressure problems. Each institution in the Center has received inquiries related to high pressure from a variety of sources that probably would not have been initiated if the Center were not in existence. Although some of these inquiries are trivial, others could lead to collaborative projects. This kind of interaction with the scientific community has increased as the Center has become better-known.

CHiPR is a multi-institutional Science and Technology Center centrally housed and administered in the Mineral Physics Institute at SUNY at Stony Brook. The other institutions that are involved include the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Dept. of Geological and Geophysical Sciences at Princeton University.

The Center is headed by a Director, Donald J. Weidner (Principal Investigator), who is advised by an Executive Committee. The Executive Committee includes Robert C. Liebermann of Stony Brook , Charles T. Prewitt from the Geophysical Laboratory and Alexandra Navrotsky from Princeton. The Executive Committee is responsible for overseeing the agenda of the Center. In particular, appointments, equipment allocations, and research budgets are reviewed by this committee. The Committee recommends changes in focus of the research effort to the Center and the Director has the authority to effect such changes through the allocation of funds. Members of the Executive Committee have the authority to oversee the day to day operation of Center affairs at their respective institutions. Liebermann, Navrotsky and Prewitt are Co-Principal Investigators of the CHiPR grant.

CHiPR has an External Advisory Committee (Appendix F) which meets once each year with the Center staff and offers advice and recommendations to the Director and the Executive Committee. In addition, the individual members of the Advisory Committee provide guidance and assistance in our outreach endeavors and have conducted surveys of the community of external users of CHiPR facilities to help improve our service to this constituency.

A Steering Committee, comprised of the Executive Committee plus additional CHiPR members, has been formed to develop scientific plans and address long term issues. At the end of CHiPR’s eleven year lifetime, this broader participation in leadership will form the basis of whatever new initiatives develop.

Coordination of activities among the three nodes of CHiPR is achieved by monthly meetings of the Executive Committee, also attended by James Broyles of Stony Brook, the CHiPR Administrative Coordinator. The outreach programs are facilitated by the contributions of John Parise as Industrial Coordinator and Glenn Richard as Educational Coordinator.

The Executive Committee is responsible for the allocation and expenditure of the CHiPR budget. The Co-Principal Invesigators have operational responsibility for deployment of these funds within their institutions within the context of overall plans approved by the Executive Committee.

Each year of CHiPR’s existence, a conference has been held in June to bring together all of the staff and students from the three institutions to present summaries of research progress, discuss new scientific and technological objectives and design strategies to meet those objectives. The meetings have taken place amidst the quiet of small academic institutions, Washington College in Chestertown, MD, and West Chester State Univ.in West Chester, PA.. These two-day meetings also provide an opportunity for the working groups to convene and to invite scientists from other disciplines to share their expertise and Earth science perspective with CHiPR staff. The 1995 meeting in Chestertown was attended by more than 65 students and staff (see Figure 25).

Communication within CHiPR has been enhanced by the establishment of an electronic bulletin board to disseminate information rapidly and simultaneously to all, by the creation of computer reference lists for topics of special interest, by the maintenance of a publication data base, and by the introduction of the monthly newsletter "Anvil Chorus" which provides information on current research results, CHiPR visitors, upcoming meetings and abstracts and papers submitted for publication.

Name Institutional Affiliation

Donald J. Weidner Mineral Physics Institute

Department of Earth and Space Sciences

State University of New York at Stony Brook

Robert Liebermann

Jiuhua Chen

Tibor Gasparik

Donald Lindsley

Hanna Nekvasil

John Parise

Robert Rapp

Richard Reeder

Michael Vaughan

Jianzhong Zhang

Alexandra Navrotsky Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences,

Princeton University

Kunal Bose

Letitia Topor

Charles T. Prewitt Geophysical Laboratory

Carnegie Institution of Washington

Francis R. Boyd

Ronald E. Cohen

Yingwei Fei

Larry W. Finger

Robert M. Hazen

Russell J. Hemley

Ho-kwang Mao

Bjorn O. Mysen

David Virgo

Ivan Getting Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences

University of Colorado

Gabriel Gwanmesia Department of Physics and Astronomy

Delaware State University

Claude Herzberg Department of Geological Sciences

Rutgers University

EDUCATION:

1963-1967 Harvard College A.B. cum laude, Physics

1967-1972 M.I.T., Ph.D., Geophysics

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:

1972-1977 Assistant Professor, SUNY at Stony Brook

1977-1982 Associate Professor, SUNY at Stony Brook

1982- Professor of Geophysics, SUNY at Stony Brook

1988- Director, Mineral Physics Institute, SUNY at Stony Brook

1991- Director, Center for High-Pressure Research, SUNY at Stony Brook

HONORS:

James B. Macelwane Award, American Geophysical Union

Fellow, American Geophysical Union, 1981-present

Dr. Weidner is currently director of CHiPR and Professor of Geophysics in the Department of Earth and Space Sciences at Stony Brook. He has served in many roles in the Department during the last several years including Deputy Chairman, coordinator for geosciences, and, currently as director of the Mineral Physics Institute, which he helped form in 1988. Dr. Weidner was instrumental in organizing the graduate student advisory committee, a committee of graduate students to represent the needs of the students to the faculty, and he served as faculty advisor to this committee for several terms. Dr. Weidner has taught several undergraduate and graduate courses including introductory courses for non-majors, seismology, geophysics and mineral physics.

Dr. Weidner's research has included earthquake seismology, but currently focuses on using laboratory studies of earth materials to define constraints on the state and evolution of the Earth. He pioneered an experimental technique based on Brillouin spectroscopy for determining the elastic properties of single crystals. This technique allows such measurements on both natural and synthetic materials, thus enabling the determination of acoustic properties of phases that are stable only deep in the Earth's interior. This research effort was recognized by the American Geophysical Union in awarding him the James B. Macelwane award in 1981. Currently, this technique is being extended to high pressure with the diamond anvil cell and to high temperature.

Dr. Weidner, along with Drs. Prewitt and Liebermann, built the high pressure facility at Stony Brook. He leads the Stony Brook large volume high pressure studies with synchrotron radiation, determining the equation of state of Earth materials, phase stability fields of minerals, and has pioneered the use of this system to determine the yield strength of these materials. He is the design team leader for the large volume experiments that the GeoCARS program is preparing for the Advanced Photon Source.

California Institute of Technology 1960 1964B. S., Geophysics, 1964

Alfred P. Sloan Scholar, 1960-1964

Columbia University, 1964-69 Ph.D. Geophysics, 1969

Research Fellow, Department of Geophysics and Geochemistry, Australian

National University, October 1970 to December 1973

Senior Research Fellow, Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National

University January 1974 to December 1976

Associate Professor of Geophysics, Department of Earth and Space Sciences, State University of New York at Stony Brook, December 1976 to September, 1981

Professor of Geophysics, Department of Earth and Space Sciences, State University of New York at Stony Brook September 1981 to present

Professor Liebermann's research interests are in the field of mineral physics which is dedicated to understanding how the physical and chemical properties of minerals and rocks control their geological behavior, especially at high pressures and temperatures.

Much of the work of his research group is now focused on the role of polymorphic phase transformations in minerals and large-scale dynamic processes in the Earth's interior. These studies include measurements of the pressure dependence of elastic wave velocities of high pressure phases, investigations of the influence of deviatoric stress on phase transformations and polycrystalline deformation at ultra-high pressures, and use of both quench and in situ X-ray diffraction measurements to study the rates of transformation and analysis of the microstructure of recovered specimens by transmission electron microscopy to elucidate the mechanisms by which these transformations occur.

Professor Liebermann was the leader in establishing the Stony Brook High Pressure Laboratory which is the core of the Mineral Physics Institute (of which he is Associate Director); the Institute is now the lead institution of the new NSF Science and Technology Center for High Pressure Research founded in 1991 in association with the Carnegie Institution of Washington and Princeton University. He is currently the editor of a Cambridge University Press book series on "Mineral Physics and Chemistry" and was editor of the Journal of Geophysical Research from 1988 to 1992. In May, 1993, he was appointed chairman of the Committee on Mineral and Rock Physics of the American Geophysical Union; in 1996, he was elected as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union. He has held visiting professor appointments at the Université Paris-Sud in Orsay, the Institut de Physique de Globe in Paris, the University of Tokyo, the Université Paris VII and the Australian National University.

Charles T. Prewitt is Director of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. After graduating from MIT in 1962, he joined the Central Research Department of the DuPont Company where he worked on a wide range of chemical and crystallographic problems including those of metal oxides, sulfides, and organometallic complexes. In 1969 he was appointed Associate Professor in the Department of Earth and Space Sciences at SUNY, Stony Brook, and initiated a research program that emphasized crystallographic studies of minerals and related materials at high temperatures and high pressures. Projects carried out at Stony Brook included studies of the crystal and electronic structures of metal sulfides, characterization of the structures and physical properties of ternary platinum oxides, and a detailed investigation of rare-earth transition-metal perovskites. At the Geophysical Laboratory, he is Co-Director of the Center for High Pressure Research and is continuing his interests in crystallography, mineral physics, and synchrotron radiation research.

Her research interests have centered about relating microscopic features of structure and bonding to macroscopic thermodynamic behavior in minerals, ceramics, and other complex materials. She has made contributions to mineral thermodynamics; mantle mineralogy and high pressure phase transitions; silicate melt and glass thermodynamics; order-disorder in spinels; framework silicates; and other oxides; ceramic processing; oxide superconductors; and the general problem of structure-energy-property systematics. The main technical area of her laboratory is high temperature reaction calorimetry. She is a member of the NSF Science and Technology Center for High Pressure Research. She has published about 200 scientific papers. Honors include an Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship (1973), Mineralogical Society of America Award (1981), American Geophysical Union Fellow (1988), Vice President, Mineralogical Society of America (1991-1992) and President (1992-19930. She spent five years (1986-1991) as Editor, Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, and serves on numerous advisory committees and panels in both government and academe. She holds the Albert G. Blanke, Jr., Professorship in Geological and Geophysical Sciences and is a member of the Princeton Materials Institute. She was elected to the National Academy of Science in 1993.

University of Arizona, Ph.D., Mineralogy-Petrology-Geochemistry, 1993

Supervisor: Professor J. Ganguly.

University of Calcutta, India. M.Sc (Geology), 1984

Supervisor: Professor P.K. Gangopadhyay.

Presidency College, University of Calcutta, B.Sc. Honors in Geology, 1981

Research Staff Member, Princeton University, 1994-Present

Post Doctoral Research Associate, Dept. of Geological & Geophysical Sciences, Princeton University. 1993-1994

Course Instructor for Geology 401 - a correspondence course in Geology of the Extended University System of the University of Arizona. 1991-1993.

Teaching and Research Associate, Dept. of Geosciences, Univ. of Arizona. 1986-1993

Teaching Assistant, Earth and Space Sciences, SUNY at Stony Brook.1984-1985

Hernon Jones Scholarship Award, University of Arizona, 1993

Graduate College Fellowship, University of Arizona, 1990-93

University of Arizona/NASA Graduate Research Fellowship,1988-89

Graduate Tuition Scholarship,1986

Selected for Rush Rhees Fellowship, University of Rochester,1984

Junior Research Fellowship of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Government of India, 1984

Graduate Merit Scholarship, KC Mahindra Educational Trust, India.1984

State Scholarship, Government of West Bengal, India. 1981-1983

Dr. Bose's research areas are primarily in thermodynamic and kinetic studies of minerals, mineral-fluid interactions and mineral reactions. Experimental and theoretical approaches are combined with heat distribution estimates within the earth to identify, predict and delineate relevant mineral assemblages and reactions that are of consequence to the chemistry and dynamics of the earth's mantle. High-temperature solution calorimetry, phase equilibria, and in situ determination of pressure-volume-temperature behavior of high pressure phases are some of the experimental methods used in his research.

EDUCATION:

1949: A.B., Harvard College

1950: M.S., Stanford College

1951: M.S., Harvard University

1958: Ph.D., Harvard University

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:

1956 - present: Staff member, Geophysical Laboratory

National Academy of Sciences

Geological Society of America (Fellow; Council)

American Geophysical Union (Fellow; President, VG & P Section;

Annual Meeting Chairman, 1967-1969)

Geochemical Society (President, Secretary)

Geological Society of Washington (President)

Mineralogical Society of America (Fellow)

Convenor, Second International Kimberlite Conference, 1977

Convenor, Workshop on Diamonds, 28th International Geological Congress,

1989

Dr. Boyd’s research interests were initially in volcanology and the petrology of volcanic rocks and included a field study of the Yellowstone rhyolite plateau together with a thermodynamic analysis of the eruption of welded tuff. His introduction to experimental petrology came in using hydrothermal apparatus to determine the stability fields of two important amphibole end members, tremolite and pargasite. During the decade of the 1960’s he worked with J. L. England in developing piston-cylinder apparatus for use in the P-T range up to 10 Gpa and 2000’C. He used this apparatus to study the quartz-coesite transition, melting curves of diopside, albite, pyrope and enstatite, and phase relations in the systems Enstatite-Pyrope and CaSiO3 - MgSiO3 - Al2O3. He set up a new large-volume pressure laboratory when the Geophysical Laboratory moved in 1990 and has collaborated with Yingwei Fei in the construction and development of cubic anvil apparatus.

Boyd established an electron probe laboratory in the late sixties and used itinitially to study compositional variations in lunar pyroxenes and subsequently in the study of mantle rocks included in kimberlites. The application of these studies to the structure and origin of continental cratons has remained his dominant interest. The Kaapvaal craton in southern Africa and the Siberian craton have been shown to have a lithosphere thickness of 200 km and to have compositions that differ from oceanic lithosphere.

1980 - 1984 Jilin University, B.S., Physics

1984 - 1987 Graduate School, Jilin University, M.S., Solid State Physics

1991 - 1994 Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Photon Factory, KEK

1987 -1991 Research Associate, ChangChun Institute of Applied Chemistry

1994 - present Post Doctoral Research Associate, SUNY at Stony Brook.

Dr. Chen’s research is mainly focused on the in situ synchrotron x-ray diffraction of minerals under high pressure and temperature which is a very powerful way to understand the physical and chemical properties of minerals in the earth. In particular, Dr. Chen has been working on the following main aspects:

Development of two-dimensional monochromatic x-ray in situ diffraction under high pressure and temperature using large-volume apparatus (SAM85) at the high-energy superconductor wiggler beamline X17B of National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS). The system provides quantitative diffraction data in intensity and d-spacing for crystal structure refinement at high P-T condition.

Ordering/disordering phenomenon of cation distribution in minerals. Structure refinements on NiAl₂O₄ spinel and NiMgSi₂O₄ olivine show a obvious favor ordering of the cation distribution in these systems at high pressure. Kinetic phenomenon of cation redistribution has been observed in this study.

Phase equilibria and hydrous phases of (Mg,Fe)Si₂O₄. A structure refinement technique for the energy dispersive diffraction data from SAM85 is applied to analyze multi-phase equilibrium and chemical kinetics under high pressure and temperature. This study is related to the mechanism of upper mantle and transition zone discontinuities.

Dr. Chen is also mainly involved in the organization of the NSLS high-pressure experiment beamtime and the technical development in large-volume apparatus. This includes (a) training and supporting users of the high-pressure station, (b) design and test sample assemblies for SAM85, (c) design and test sample assemblies for "T-cup" press.

Ph.D. Geology, Harvard University 9/79-6/85

A.M. Geology, Harvard University 6/81

B.S. Geology, Indiana University 6/79

Oberlin College, Oberlin OH 9/75-6/76

Geophysical Laboratory--Carnegie Institution of Washington 9/90-

Research Geophysicist

Sachs-Freeman Associates, 11/90-11/94

Consultant

Naval Research Laboratory 8/87--9/90

Research Physicist GM13, Dr. L.L. Boyer

Geophysical Laboratory--Carnegie Institution of Washington 11/88-9/90

Visiting Investigator

National Research Council--NRL 8/85-8/87

Cooperative Research Associate, Dr. L. L. Boyer

Doornbos Memorial Prize from International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth’s Interior (IASPEI), 1994

Mineralogical Society of America Award, 1994

Berman Research Publication Award, NRL, 1993

IBM Supercomputing Competition, Second Prize in Science, 1990

Berman Research Publication Award, NRL, 1988

National Research Council, Research Associateship, 8/85-8/87

National Science Foundation Graduate Fellowship, 9/79-8/82

American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Geophysical Union, American Physical Society, Mineralogical Soc. of America, Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi

Ronald Cohen is at present exclusively involved in state-of-the-art theoretical and computational techniques for phase transitions, equations of state, elastic, vibrational properties, and electronic structure and bonding of materials. He is involved in three major areas of research. His major area of current interest is high pressure properties of minerals and other phases, particularly those important to geophysics. For instance, he has predicted phase transitions in SiO2 that may occur deep in the earth, and has been working to better understand all of the major phases presumed present in the earth's lower mantle. He is also involved in research into understanding the behavior of ferroelectrics and high temperature superconductors, important problems not only from the point of view of applications, but also important in terms of basic physical understanding.

7/1991-present Associate Staff Member, Geophysical Laboratory,

Carnegie Institution of Washington

7/1989-7/1991 Postdoctoral Fellow, Geophysical Laboratory,

Carnegie Institution of Washington

7/1988-7/1989 Predoctoral Fellow, Geophysical Laboratory

9/1984-7/1989 City University of New York, Ph.D. 1989

9/1982-7/1984 Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences

9/1978-7/1982 Zhejiang University, China, B.S. 1982

1993-present Norton Senior Scientist Fellowship, Geophysical Laboratory,

funded by Norton Co. and Saint-Gorbain Corporation

7/1988-present Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington

Mineral Physics and Experimental Petrology.

9/1984-5/1989 City University of New York

Solid solution models; Thermodynamics of reactions at high pressure and high temperature;

Data systematics in the system Mg-Fe-Si-O;

C-O-H fluids at high pressure and temperature.

Yingwei Fei received his Ph.D. in 1989 from City University of New York, where he worked on equations of state modeling, thermodynamic properties of minerals and fluids, and element partitioning and phase relations in the system MgO-FeO-SiO2 by using various high-pressure experimental techniques (diamond anvil and piston cylinder devices at the Geophysical Laboratory and multi-anvil device at the Mineral Physics Institute at Stony Brook). Currently, he is working on (i) element partitioning and phase relations in the system Mg-FeO-Al2O3-SiO2; (ii) Mössbauer spectroscopy of iron-bearing high-pressure phases such as perovskite, -phase, and spinel; (iii) phase equilibria in the system Fe-H-O at high pressure and temperature; and (iv) equations of state of phases related to the mantle at high temperature by using synchrotron radiation.

1962-1967 University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, PH.D. Geology

1958-1962 University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, B. Physics

1969-present Crystallographer, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution of Washington

1967-1969 Postdoctoral Fellow, Geophysical Laboratory

1963-1967 Research Assistant, Geology Department, U. Minnesota

1962-1963 Teaching Assistant, Geology Department, U. Minnesota

Research Collaborator, Summer Program, of Brookhaven National

Laboratory Physics Department, Upton NY, 1992

Visiting Professor, Geology Department, Virginia Polytechnic and

State University, Blacksburg, VA, 1984-1985

Visiting Professor, Department of Earth and Space Sciences, State

University of New York, Stony Brook, NY, 1975-1976

Adjunct Professor, Geology Department, The Johns Hopkins

University, Baltimore MD, 1974-1975

Visiting Investigator, Max Planck Institut, Heidelberg, Germany,

July 1973, July and August 1974, July 1977, August 1978

Dr. Finger's research interests are in the field of crystal structure, crystal chemistry, and the changes in crystal structure with varying external conditions. Special interest is focused on the

changes in mineral structure that accompany the discontinuities in seismological properties in the transition zone of the mantle, and to elucidate the crystal-chemical properties of lower-mantle phases.

Dr. Finger is also an accomplished computer programmer. As part of his dissertation research, he wrote a code for refinement that has been, for many years, the standard program for mineral structures. His activities in the field of real-time instrument control were responsible for automation of both single-crystal X-ray diffractometers and the electron microprobe at the Geophysical Laboratory. In recent years, he has written and maintained the data acquisition and instrument control software for the beamline X7A at the National Synchrotron Light Source, which is one of the most productive activities at NSLS. In addition, Finger has developed software for micro-crystal diffraction at beamlines at NSLS and ESRF.

1968-1973 Komensky University, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia

M.S. in Applied Geology

1977-1978 State University of New York at Buffalo

1978-1981 State University of New York at Stony Brook

Ph.D. in Experimental Petrology

1973-1975 Research Assistant Professor, Komensky University,

Bratislava, Czechoslovakia

1981-1985 Post-doctoral Research Associate, The University

of Chicago

1986-1989 Research Assistant Professor, State University of

New York at Stony Brook

1989-Present Research Associate Professor, State University

of New York at Stony Brook

Dr.Gasparik's research interests are in the field of experimental mineralogy and petrology, with the primary emphasis on experimental investigation of phase relations in chemical systems corresponding to a simplified earth's mantle. His primary research tools are the split-sphere anvil apparatus for conducting experiments at pressures up to 25 GPa and temperatures up to 2500ºC, and the electron microprobe for analyzing experimental products. His primary research goal is understanding of the mineral and chemical composition of the earth's mantle, its structure and evolution with time.

Dr. Gasparik's initial experimental studies in 1980- 1985 were carried out with a piston-cylinder apparatus and their main purpose was calibration of various geothermometers and geobarometers. The transfer of the multianvil technology from Japan to the United States in 1985 allowed him to extend his phase equilibrium studies far beyond the pressure capabilities of the piston-cylinder apparatus. Experimental studies carried out with the split-sphere anvil apparatus from 1986 to present have determined phase relations in simplified mantle compositions in the whole pressure and temperature range of the upper mantle. These studies have resulted in a major progress in understanding the mineralogy, chemistry and structure of the upper mantle and its evolution with time.

1959-1963 Harvard University, B.A., Physics

1963-1967 Univ. of California at Los Angeles, M.S., Planetary and Space Science

1967-1976 Senior Research Associate, University of California at Los Angeles

1976-present University Researcher/Research Associate, CIRES, Univ. of Colorado

1991-present Adjunct Research Professor, Mineral Phys.Inst., SUNY, Stony Brook, NY

1978-1991 Participant, US-USSR Cooperative Earthquake Prediction Program

1983-1989 Consultant, High Pressure Technology, Inc., Los Angeles, CA

1985-1987 Consultant, Atkinson-Noland & Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO

1985-present Member, The Graduate School, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO

1989 & 1990 Visiting Scholar, Dept. of Geol.Sci., Northwestern Univ., Evanston, IL.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH: Ivan Getting's research interests include high pressure physics, mineralogy at high P-T, phase transitions, the equation of state of solids, mantle anelasticity, the rheology of rocks, minerals, and structural materials, and the design and performance of highly stressed structures. His early studies of phase transitions and melting in elements, compounds,and silicate systems were conducted at UCLA using piston-cylinder apparatus. He was instrumental in dramatically increasing the P-T capabilities of this apparatus, in developing high accurate piston-cylinder cells with both solid and liquid pressure media, in doubling the accurately known pressure scale, and in establishing the temperature scale at high pressure.

Ivan is currently an active member of CHiPR with responsibilities in several major arenas including: H-P apparatus design and improvement within CHiPR; outreach to the H-P research community providing technical support to laboratories world wide; outreach to industry supporting commercial development of H-P instrumentation, processes, and materials; and outreach to students through participation in several undergraduate enhancement programs. He also serves on the large volume H-P design team in the CARS program at the Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory. Recently he has been instrumental in doubling the large volume pressure accessible to X-rays. On another front, he has been instrumental in the development of a new, much less expensive grade of tungsten carbide made in the US to replace the Japanese made Toshiba grade F currently used by most US multi-anvil labs for their highest pressure work. Two new multi-anvil, large volume H-P apparatuses of his design have just been put into service at SUNY and the GeoLab.. Next winter he plans to teach undergraduate students about experimental H-P geophysics onboard an oceanographic training ship operated by the Sea Education Assoc. in Woods Hole, MA."

1982-1984 Delaware State College, B.S. Physics and Mathematics

1985-1987 State University of New York, Stony Brook, M.Sc.Geophysics

1987-1991 State University of New York, Stony Brook, Ph.D. Geophysics

1991-1993 Assistant Professor of Geophysics, Delaware State College, Dover, DE

1993-Present Associate Professor, Delaware State University, Dover, Delaware

1989 Visiting Fellow, Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian

National University, Canberra, Australia

1991-Present: Adjunct Research Assistant Professor, Mineral Physics Inst.,

Department of Earth and Space Sciences, SUNY at Stony Brook.

Cum Laude, Alpha Chi, Alpha Kappa Mu, Pi Mu Epsilon-Delaware State College, 1982-1984

Junior Honor Award for Excellence in the Natural Sciences, Delaware State College Honor Society, 1984.

Who's Who Among Students in American Colleges and Universities, 1984.

Sigma Xi--Excellence in Doctoral Research, State Univ.of New York, Stony Brook, 1991

Excellence Award in Research, Delaware State University, 1993-1994

Professor Gwanmesia's research interests are focused on investigating the elastic properties of the high pressure phases of silicate minerals. Measurement of the pressure and temperature derivatives of the elastic wave velocities for these silicate minerals can provide answers to the ongoing debate about the nature of the chemical stratification in the mantle.

Over the recent years, with support from the State University of New York and Stony Brook and the National Science Foundation Division of Earth Sciences, Professor Gwanmesia has adopted the large volume 2000-ton uniaxial split-sphere apparatus (USSA-2000) to fabricate polycrystals of mantle minerals. Dense isotropic polycrystals of the beta (b ) and spinel (g ) phases of Mg2SiO4 have been fabricated at high temperatures (900-1200ºC) and high pressures (14-18 GPa) in an MgO cell assembly using NaCl as pressure medium to minimize non-hydrostatic stresses at high temperatures and a telescopic graphite furnace to provide a low temperature gradient. Professor Gwanmesia has recently extended the temperature range to ~2000ºC to enable synthesis and hot-pressing of polycrystalline aggregate of majorite garnet (MgSiO3).

Measurement of the elastic wave velocities as a function of pressure for polycrystals of the b and spinel g phases of Mg2SiO4 and pyrope (En60Py40) garnet has been accomplished through collaboration with Professor Ian Jackson and Dr. Sally Rigden at the Australian National University in Canberra, in Australia.

Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science (1995)

Educational Press Assoc., Distinguished Achievement Award (1992)

ASCAP Deems Taylor Award (1989)

The Ipatief Prize of the American Chemical Society (1986)

The Mineralogical Society of America Award (1982)

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH:

Robert Hazen's scientific research has focused on the close relations between crystal structure and physical properties. He has developed several high-pressure and high-temperature techniques and has applied these techniques to understanding the effects of temperature and pressure on atomic arrangements, particularly in deep-earth environments. He has studied a variety of materials including lunar minerals, ceramics, ferroelectrics, superconductors, solidified gases and organometallics. In conjunction with biologist Harold Morowitz, Hazen recently began an experimental project on hydrothermal organic synthesis, in an effort to examine the possibility that life arose near deep ocean hydrothermal vents.

Beginning in January, 1989, Hazen joined the faculty of George Mason University as a Clarence Robinson Professor. His responsibilities include developing and teaching undergraduate courses in scientific literacy and advising the University's President on requirements for a basic science curriculum. He is a member of the National Research Council's Commission on Science Education, and he serves on advisory boards for the National Science Resources Center, the Carnegie Council, and the NOVA television series. Hazen has written several books on science for general audiences. Science Matters: Achieving Scientific Literacy (Doubleday, 1991) addressed the concern for improved science education, while The New Alchemists: Breaking the Barriers of High Pressure (Random House, 1993), examines the science and technology of high-pressure research.

1973-1977: Wesleyan University, B.A. Chemistry

1978-1980: Harvard University, M.A. Chemistry

1980-1983: Harvard University, Ph.D. Chemistry

1979-83: Research Associate, Harvard University.

1984-87: Postdoctoral Fellow, Geophysical Laboratory, CIW.

1991: Visiting Professor, The Johns Hopkins University,

1996: Visiting Professor, Ecole Normale Superieure de Lyon

1987-present: Staff Member, Geophysical Laboratory, CIW.

Phi Beta Kappa; Sigma Xi Scientific Society.

Mineralogical Society of America Award, 1990; Fellow, American Physical Society, 1996.

Fellow, American Physical Society, 1995

Associate Editor: J. Geophys. Res., 1991-1993

Russell J. Hemley was trained in chemistry, with specialties in molecular spectroscopy, electronic structure of polyatomic molecules, and general physical chemistry. He began theoretical and experimental studies of solids at high pressure, first at Harvard and then at the Geophysical Laboratory as a post-doctoral fellow. As a staff member at the Geophysical Laboratory, his interests have expanded to include the application of high-pressure techniques to a variety of problems in earth and planetary, and condensed-matter physics and chemistry. Most of this work involves the application of diamond-cell techniques and what happens to matter at high pressure.

Hemley has devoted considerable effort during the past five years to studying the properties of solid hydrogen at very high pressures. Working with Ho-kwang Mao, he has succeeded in pressurizing hydrogen to pressures close to 300 GPa, and has observed numerous new phenomena in hydrogen in the megabar range (>100 GPa). These include the discovery of the 150-GPa phase transition, and new dynamical, structural, and electronic properties of hydrogen related to metallization.

Other accomplishments include advances in understanding the behavior of related simple molecular systems at high pressure, theoretical studies of silicate perovskites, the discovery of pressure-induced amorphization in silicates, and novel properties of amorphous materials at high pressure. He is also interested in developing new high-pressure techniques, including optical spectroscopy, diamond-cell, and x-ray and infrared synchrotron radiation methods, as well as new theoretical models for solids. Hemley has authored or coauthored over 160 scientific papers.

1966-1970 University of Alberta, Canada, B.Sc. Honours, Geology

1970-1975 Edinburgh University, Scotland, Ph.D. Geology

1975-1977 Postdoctoral Research Fellow, University of Western Ontario

1977-1979 Postdoctoral Research Associate, Harvard-Smithsonian Center

for Astrophysics

1979-1980 Visiting Research Scientist, Lunar and Planetary Institute

1980-present Assistant/Associate Full Professor, Rutgers University

1991-present Adjunct Associate Professor, State Univ. of NY, Stony Brook

Visiting Research Scientist, Nagoya University (Japan); October 1985 - March 1986

Dr. Herzberg's research interests are in experimental petrology, wherein a determination is made of equilibrium phase relations amongst coexisting liquid and crystalline phases in chemical systems and T-P conditions that are appropriate to the earth's mantle. Early research was on geothermometry and geobarometry of mantle peridotite, but more recently Professor Herzberg developed the first liquidus phase diagrams to 15 GPa from theory (1983), and became the first U.S. scientist to generate data with the multianvil press (1985, Japan).

Since 1987 Dr. Herzberg has conducted high pressure research with the multi-anvil apparatus at the Stony Brook High-Pressure Laboratory. Liquidus and subsolidus phase diagrams have been generated for peridotite and komatiite compositions to pressures in excess of 20 GPa. A quantitative description is now being made of magma generation in mantle plumes, specifically the compositions of picrite and komatiite liquids that are formed as a function of depth and degree of melting. A phase equilibrium control to the origin of mantle peridotite is much more complicated and remains conjectural, but fractional crystallization models are currently being tested by examining the partitioning behavior of radiogenic trace elements between high pressure crystals and liquids.

DONALD H. LINDSLEY

A.B. Geology (with high honors)--Princeton University, 1956.

Ph.D. Geology (with physical chemistry minor)--Johns Hopkins Univ., 1961.

1993-96..Associate Chair for GEOSciences, E.S.S. Dept., SUNY, Stony Brook

1970-present PROFESSOR OF PETROLOGY, State Univ. of N. Y., Stony Brook.

1962-70 Petrologist, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution.

1960-62 Postdoctoral Fellow, Geophysical Laboratory.

Adjunct Professor, Department of Geology and Geophysics, Univ. of Wyoming,

1989-

Visiting Scientist, Univ. of British Columbia, 1976-1977.

Visiting Associate Professor, California Institute of Technology, 1969.

Associate Editor, The American Mineralogist (1984-1987). Special Associate

Editor for Anorthosite issue (1990).

Editor of Reviews in Mineralogy, Vol. 25, Oxide Minerals: Their Petrologic and

Magnetic Significance (Mineralogical Society of America).

Mineralogical Society of America, 1982.

President, Geochemical Society, 1992-93.

Roebling Medalist, Min. Soc. Amer., 1996

A new Ba chromium-titanate mineral was named "lindsleyite" (1983).

Dr. Lindsley's research interests involve determination of the conditions of formation of various rocks from the earth's crust and mantle. The main tools he uses are experimental phase equilibria and thermodynamic solution modelling. He also has an active field project studying the Laramie Anorthosite Complex in Wyoming. Specific projects include studies of the origins of anorthosite and related rocks; phase relations of iron-bearing oxides and silicates; high-pressure, high-temperature equilibria of feldspars, pyroxenes, and olivines; geothermometry and geobarometry; relations of redox equilibria to petrologic processes; thermodynamic solution models of minerals.

A particular thrust over the past several years has been evaluation of interactions among Fe-Ti oxides, olivine, pyroxenes, and quartz. Because many mineral assemblages within this system are thermodynamically overdetermined, the mutual equilibria permit correction of phase compositions that may have altered, calculation of activities of phases not present, and determination of temperature, pressure, oxygen fugacity, and silica activity. We are distributing the computer program QUILF, which performs these calculations.

Lindsley has been active in supplying materials for high-pressure studies, and in providing advice and facilities for other investigators to synthesize such materials.

Ph.D. Geochemistry, May 1986; The Pennsylvania State University,

Dissertation: A theoretical thermodynamic investigation of the system Ab-Or-An-Qz (-H2O) and implications for melt speciation

B.A. Geological Sciences, August 1979, Cornell University .

Assistant Professor (Aug. 1988 - present) Dept. of Earth and Space Sciences, SUNY Stony Brook. Experimental and theoretical igneous petrology.

Faculty Research Associate (June 1987-Aug. 1988) Geology Department, Arizona State

University

Temporary Faculty (Sept. 1986-June 1987) Department of Geological Sciences, The University of Arizona. Igneous petrology.

Postdoctoral Research Associate (Nov. 1985-Aug. 1986), Chemistry Department, Arizona State

University .

Dr. Nekvasil's behavior in silicate melts, development of thermodynamic models systematizing these controls, and application of the resulting models to the prediction of crystal/melt equilibria and hence magmatic evolution in the crust and upper mantle.

Over the past several years, efforts have been made to predict crystal/melt equilibria in systems involving peritectic reactions between ternary compounds and silicate melts. Application to ternary feldspars has for the first time permitted evaluation of differentiation trends in high temperature ternary-feldspar bearing rocks. The major differences between such trends in high temperature magmas (e.g., syenitic magmas) vs. those for compositionally similar, but lower temperature magmas (granitic magmas), can be used to evaluate the history of specific natural igneous rock suites.

Experimental efforts have focused on determination of crystal/liquid equilibria in highly viscous systems previously thought to be experimentally intractable. This work has resulted in a technique that permits the growth of feldspar crystals up to 1mm in length from anydrous liquids in systems such as NaAlSi3O8-SiO2 and CaAl2Si2O8-KAlSi3O8.

1959-1963: National Taiwan University, B.S., Geology

1964-1966: University of Rochester, M.S., Geological Sciences

1964-1968: University of Rochester, Ph.D., Geological Sciences

1967-68: Research Associate, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.

1968-70: Postdoctoral Fellow, Geophysical Laboratory, CIW.

1970-72: Research Associate, Geophysical Laboratory, CIW.

1972-present: Staff Member (Geophysicist), Geophysical Laboratory, CIW.

Sigma Xi National Lectureship: 1991-1993, Sigma Xi Scientific Society.

Mineralogical Society of America Award, 1979.

P. W. Bridgman Gold Medal Award, 1989, International Association for the

Advancement of High Pressure Science and Technology (AIRAPT).

Arthur L. Day Prize and Lectureship, 1990, National Academy of Science.

Elected to membership in the National Academy of Sciences, 1993.

Elected to membership in Academia Sinica, Republic of China, 1994.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH:

Dr. Mao’s research includes pioneering and continuing work in the development of ultrahigh pressure technology and in the application of the technology to physics, chemistry, material sciences, geophysics, geochemistry, and planetary sciences.

In 1976, Mao and Bell first reached 100 GPa static pressure, an advancement which doubled the previous pressure limit. Since then, they have progressively improved the technique and have reached over 300 GPa. Mao and colleagues have developed or improved technology to interface the megabar diamond cells with experimental measurements such as x-ray diffractions employing synchrotron radiation, Mössbauer spectroscopy, fluorescence, Raman scattering, Brillouin scattering, visible to far-infrared transmission and reflection spectroscopies, electrical conductivity, etc.. They established a ruby pressure calibration scale for the high-pressure diamond cell community.

Mao and colleagues have discovered numerous new physical and chemical phenomena including electronic transitions of hydrogen and deuterium above 150 GPa. They have systematically studied compression of major components of the Earth's mantle and core: silicates, oxides, and iron-alloys, and have found that practically all major minerals go though one or several phase transitions at these pressures. It is now possible to construct geophysical and geochemical models of the earth based on direct experimental data. Mao and colleagues have also built a comprehensive data base of condensed gases and ices at ultrahigh pressures for the interior models of giant planets.

B. Sc.: University of Oslo: 1969

M. A.: University of Oslo: 1971

Ph. D.: The Pennsylvania State University: 1974

Predoctoral Fellow, Carnegie Instn.Washington:1972-1974

Carnegie Corporation fellow, Carnegie Instn. Washington: 1974-1977

Lecturer, Johns Hopkins University: 1975-1977

Senior Scientist/Experimental

Geochemist Geophysical Laboratory: 1977-present

F. W. Clarke Award of the Geochemical Society of America: 1977

Reusch Medal, Norwegian Geological Society: 1979

Elected Member, The Royal Norwegian Acad. of Science and Letters: 1985

American Geophysical Union

Geochemical Society of America

Mineralogical Society of America (Fellow, 1979)

Recent activities also include characterization of the physical chemistry governing rock-forming processes at high temperature and very low pressure in the early solar nebula. These studies also involve laboratory simulation of conditions pertinent to textural and phase relationships in Ca-,Al-rich inclusions in carbonaceous chondrites and possible effects of vapor fractionation of stable isotopes under controlled laboratory conditions.

The major research interests of Bjorn Mysen are in experimental petrology with an emphasis on igneous processes. These interests include melting phase relations of mantle materials and element partitioning between minerals, fluids, and melts at high pressures and temperatures. Closely associated with this interest are studies of the structure of silicate melts and fluids and relationships between melt structure and properties of igneous systems. These studies have focussed on derivation of the major principles governing melt structure in chemically simple systems, identification of the principal structural controls on physical and chemical properties of silicate melts, and how these principles can be applied to complex natural compositions.

1972-1976 James Cook Univ. of North Queensland BSc (Honors Class 1) Chemistry

1976-1980 James Cook University of North Queensland Ph.D - Geochemistry

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:

1977-1978 Australia-Japan Business Co-operation Fellowship, Osaka University, Japan 1976-1980 Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering Research Fellowship 1980-1982 Postdoctoral; SUNY StonyBrook

1982- 83; 86-87; 88-89 Visiting scientist DuPont de Nemours Company

1983-1985 postdoctoral, Australian National University

1985-1986 Assistant Professor, Chemistry, Sydney University of Technology, Australia.

1986-1988 Assistant Professor, Inorganic Chemistry, University of Sydney.

1989-present Assist./Associate Professor Geology State Univ. of NY, StonyBrook PROFESSIONAL SERVICE:

American Crystallographic Association, Chair Synchrotron Special interest group (1995), chair neutron SIG (1996-) member education committee (94-95)

NSF review Panel, Small Business, Innovative Research Program (1990).

NSF review Panel, Materials Synthesis and Processing (1992).

100 Open literature, refereed journals, 2 Patents, Abstracts.

Parise’s research interests are in the area of pressure as a selective variable in solid state synthesis and characterization. Three simple philosophies lead to new materials with the application of high pressure: (1) stabilization of oxides of metals with high electron affinities (Au, Hg, Pt, etc) until reaction occurs; (2) the generation of structure compatible tie-lines leading to phases between compositions which are structure incompatible at ambient (e.g., FeTiO₃ - CaTiO₃) (3) extrapolation of simple crystal chemical "rules" applicable at ambient (such as the "tolerance factor" in perovskites) to high pressure (e.g., ScCrO₃ with a tolerance factor of 0.78 forms a perovskite only at high pressure). The search for new materials and phenomena is facilitated by the use of in situ x-ray and neutron scattering techniques. These experiments are performed at appropriate installations in the U.S. and Europe. By interfacing imaging plates (IP) with high pressure apparatus order-disorder and synthetic reactions can be followed in situ. The later experiments are particularly useful for our hydrothermal titration experiments - a technique for the synthesis of new open framework materials pioneered by my group. Materials are held at high P and T while new reactants are introduced at times of transition (dissolution for example) thereby redirecting the reaction. This leads to materials quite diverse from those formed in a static reaction. Connections with industry range from work with DuPont, ARCO and Northrup, where expertise in high resolution powder diffraction is brought to bear on structural analysis of molecular sieve materials, to work with a local biotech. company. The later work involves some members of my group in propriety research on H. pylori bacteria; a patent for this work is in review.

1976-1981 State University of New York at Buffalo, B.Sc. Geology

1983-1989 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, M.Sc., PhD, Geochemistry & Petrology

1983-1989 Research Assistant, Experimental Petrology Laboratory, Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst.

1990-1993 post-doctoral Research Associate, Calorimetry Laboratory, dept. of Geological and Geophysical Sciences, Princeton University

1993-1994 Research Associate, Mineral Physics institute and Center for High Pressure Research, Dept. of Earth and Space Sciences, University at Stony Brook

1995-present Assistant Research Professor, ibid.

~collaborative research with Dr. N. Shimizu at Woods Hole Oceanographic Inst. to examine trace element partitioning behavior during deep subduction of oceanic crust, using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) to analyze the products of basalt melting/phase equilibria experiments conducted in the USCA 1000 multi-anvil apparatus at Stony Brook.

~participant in international conferences for Geochemistry (1996 Goldschmidt Conference, Heidelberg), Early History of the Earth (Cambridge, UK, Sept. 1995), 6th International Kimberlite Conference, Novosibirsk, Russia, August, 1995, Volatiles in the Earth and Solar System, Pasadena, CA 1994.

~operation and maintenance of Cameca CAMEBAX microprobe in the Dept. of Earth and Space Sciences, Stony Brook

Dr. Rapp's research interests relate to the origin and early growth of the continental crust, the role of recycling of oceanic crust in the geochemical evolution of the crust-mantle system, and element mobility and transfer by silicate melts and fluids. At present, he is conducting melting experiments on natural hydrous basalts at 3-12 GPa, in order to determine the position of the solidus and the nature of early-formed fluids and melts, and to examine element partitioning. It is expected that these experiments will be extended into the 15-22 GPa range in the next year or two. The broader objectives of this research is to provide experimental constraints on the behavior of deeply subducted oceanic crust, and its role in the origin of plume-related ocean island basalts that come from the transition zone or lower mantle.

Richard J. Reeder

University of Illinois, Urbana; B.S. (Geology) (1975)

University of California, Berkeley; M.A. (1977)

University of California, Berkeley; Ph.D. (1980)

1990-present: Professor of Geochemistry, SUNY at Stony Brook, NY

1986-1987: Visiting Research Fellow, Cambridge University, UK

1984-1990: Associate Professor, SUNY at Stony Brook, NY

1980-1984: Assistant Professor, SUNY at Stony Brook, NY

1976-1978: Research Geologist, U.S. G.S., Isotope Geology Branch, Menlo Park, CA

Dr. Reeder's current research involves experimental investigations of crystal growth processes, with emphasis on mechanisms of trace element incorporation and surface-induced ordering The work involves several complementary approaches including transmission electron microscopy, surface microtopography, cathodoluminescence microscopy, XAFS, synchrotron X-ray microanalysis, and atomic force microscopy.

Dr. Reeder also maintains an active program in carbonate crystal chemistry. Current research addresses structural aspects of phase transitions, order-disorder, and solid solutions, specifically in magnesian calcites and calcian and ferroan dolomites. This works relies on X-ray diffraction, various spectroscopic techniques, and transmission electron microscopy. It also includes modeling of real and hypothetical structures.

He is also involved in projects relating to structural phase transitions in minerals and mineral analogs at high T-P conditions.

Dr. Topor's research interests are within the field of high temperature thermodynamics, with emphasis on molten salts, alloys, refractory materials and minerals. Studies on the vaporization thermodynamics of molten alkali halides and the association in their vapor phase have been of special interest.

A systematic study of thermodynamic properties of refractory materials by high temperature calorimetry led to the development of a new original calorimetric technique. By applying this new approach to refractory compounds, previously inaccessible to calorimetric study, a significant contribution to the thermodynamics of silicides, borides and intermetallics was achieved.

In the last seven years, her research efforts have also been directed at improving the design of high temperature calorimeters by increasing their sensitivity, accuracy, and precision. An ultrasensitive calorimeter six times more sensitive than the twin-Calvet calorimeter has been completed and tested with 2-3 mg high pressure samples. A new thermopile has recently been designed and a hybrid calorimeter with characteristics intermediate between those of the twin-Calvet calorimeter and the Setaram HT-1500 calorimeter has also been built.

Her research efforts are presently devoted to the study of phase transitions in minerals and their analogs (silicate perovskites, fluoride perovskites) to achieve a better understanding of the nature of the seismic discontinuity near 660 km and for predicting the thermodynamic properties of lower mantle mineral assemblages in general. She has over 50 publications.

1960: B.Sc. University of Adelaide, Australia.

1961: B.Sc. (Honors), University of Adelaide, Australia.

1967: Ph.D. University of Adelaide.

1989- present: Senior Lecturer, Dept.of Geology, Univ. of Bristol, Bristol, U.K.

1988-1989: Visiting Investigator, Bayerisches GeoInstitut, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany

1971-present: Staff Member, Geophysical Laboratory.

1967-71: Research Associate in the Enrico-Fermi Institute for the Study of Metals and the Dept. of the Geophysical Sciences, The Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, llinois.

1988-1989: Visiting Investigator, Bayerisches GeoInstitut, Univ. of Bayreuth, Germany

Fellow of the Mineralogical Society of America

Dr. Virgo's research interests are focused on the use of crystal chemical properties and other structural information to characterize properties and processes in rock forming minerals and silicate melts.

David Virgo's early work focused on intercrystalline partitioning between coexisting feldspar phases in high-grade metamorphic rocks. His interest in intracrystalline equilibria in ferromagnesian minerals began while at the University of Chicago and has remained one of his major interests ever since. He showed, for example, in a series of classical studies how Fe-Mg, order-disorder equilibria in pyroxenes and amphiboles can be used as a powerful means to determine temperature-time paths of metamorphic and igneous rocks on the Earth and the Moon. This interest led him to current projects utilizing thermodynamic calibrations of heterogeneous phase equilibria between coexisting minerals in xenoliths entrained in basaltic and kimberlitic magmas in order to clarify the oxidation state of the lower mantle. An extension of these studies to include the crystallographic controls of Fe3+ and Fe2+ in lower mantle phases is aimed at modelling the oxidation state of the lower mantle.

David Virgo also devotes a considerable portion of his research time to experimental studies of the structure of silicate melts and derivative physical and chemical properties. He was an integral part of the extensive effort on silicate melt structure beginning around 1979 where he showed how Mössbauer and Raman spectroscopic data can be used to determine speciation in silicate melts and glasses. This interest in silicate melt structure is currently focused on an experimental calibration of the factors affecting the redox properties of natural melts in the Earth's crust.

p. 107

p. 108

p. 109

To emphasize related projects, publications are arranged by topic. Within each topic they are categorized as: (A) CHiPR project - research in a major CHiPR area of emphasis performed by CHiPR personnel with predominantly CHiPR support; (B) collaboration - work involving CHiPR personnel and others in areas related to CHiPR interests, partly supported by CHiPR; and (C) other: work utilizing CHiPR facilities and/or samples but largely supported by other sources. Categories are: (1) Equation of State, (2) Water in the Earth, (3) Iron in the Mantle and Core, (4) Other Phases: Structure, Spectroscopy, Thermochemistry, Phase Transitions, and Equilibria, (5) Petrology and Geochemistry, (6) Rheology, Kinetics, Transformation Mechanisms and Transport Phenomena, (7) Gases and Clathrates in Earth and Planetary Science, (8) Materials Science, (9) Technique Development, (10) Books and Review Articles, (11) Dissertations